Registration

Thank You

2008-07-23T21:24:00.001-07:00

Thank you, Professor Frolich. I thoroughly enjoyed this course and feel that I learned a great deal. Best wishes to you!

Final Self-Evaluation

2008-07-23T21:19:00.000-07:00

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The compendium reviews that I spent a great deal of time on, the quizzes that I improved on and finally received a 20/20 on one... :) ... and the labs.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? I'm not sure if I did the final lab completely right. I was getting a little tripped up on the last part of it, when I had to comment about how we've co-evolved.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? A
4. How could I perform better in the next unit? There is no next unit! :(

REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? The online labs. I love the hands on experiments.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? Probably during the final lab. This was new to me, and I felt like I was a bit unsure of what I was doing. Also, sometimes, I had a hard time distinguishing what type of interaction it was.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? Other students asking and answering questions on the NING network. I love that.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? None.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
The final lab was much easier than the other three. A very pleasant surprise!

Unit 4 Lab Project: List of Species

2008-07-23T11:32:00.000-07:00

Beetle

Yellojacket

Staphylococcus Epidermidis

Spider Mites

Moth

Mosquito

Iceberg Lettuce Field

Housefly

Dust Mite

Black Widow

Definition of Domestication: A population of animals or plants, through a process of selection, that becomes accustomed to human provision and control, or care.

1.
- Common Name: Dog
- Scientific Name: Canis Lupus Familiarus
- Interaction: Symbiotic. Our family benefits from this relationship because we receive love, entertainment, and protection from our dogs. The dogs benefit because they receive all of this from us, plus food, water, etc.
- Domesticated.
- We have been co-evolving ever since man decided to domesticate the wild dog. They have assisted us in hunting, protection, etc., and we have come to depend on them for these things.

2.
- Common Name: Cat
- Scientific Name: Felius Domesticus
- Interaction: Symbiotic. Our family benefits from this relationship because she is sweet and loving, and has been known to catch a mouse or two. In fact, some humans "use" cats just for that purpose: hunting of rodents in barns, etc. The cat benefits because it has a warm, safe environment, and we provide it with food, water, and love.
- Humans have co-evolved with this species in the same way as with dogs.

3.
- Common Name: Dust Mite
- Scientific Name: North American Dermatophagoides Farinae
- Interaction: Parasitic. Dust mites feed on dead skin cells of humans. At first, I thought that maybe that benefited humans in the fact that they are, in a way, cleaning up our beds, etc. from dead skin cells. But I figure that we can easily throw a sheet in the washer, vacuum, dust, etc., so we don't need them to do that and the effect of them doing it is surely very minimal. I learned that dust mites are the most common cause of allergies, so they are harmful to humans.
- Not domesticated. Since we can't see them with the naked eye, our interaction with them is "blind".
- Humans have co-evolved with them because there is really nothing we can do to totally eliminate them. Yes, you can vacuum everyday, but you can't get them all. Basically, we hardly notice that they're there, and even if we have allergies, we medicate ourselves, and our interaction with them is unchanged.

4.
- Common Name: Willow Tree
- Scientific Name: Salix Salicaceae
- Interaction: Symbiotic. The tree benefits because it depends on us to water it, fertilize it, and take care of it. (Especially here in the desert.) We benefit because we can enjoy its beauty and shade.
- Domesticated. As I said, here in the desert, the tree has become accustomed to humans caring for it and depends on them. Also, humans "farm" trees.
- We co-evolve with them very easily; we enjoy them and they need us. They also help the environment through photosynthesis. Unfortunately, we sometimes cut too many down, but they keep growing (after we plant them), and we co-evolve.

5.
- Common Name: Red Ant
- Scientific Name: Formicidae Solenopsis
- Interaction: Parasitic. I am unaware of any benefits to other species from red ants. Contrary, other species are harmed by the red ant. Humans can be stung, and they kill crickets and plants to eat.
- Not domesticated. We do not come into contact (voluntarily) with red ants, and they are not accustomed to humans.
- Humans don't always co-evolve with this species well. Many times, we have pest control come out and spray the ant hills in order to avoid our pets or children getting stung by the multiple numbers of ants in a colony. We try to avoid them.

6.
- Common Name: Whiptail Lizard
- Scientific Name: Teiidae
- Interaction: Commensal. I think that we benefit, because we see them outside in our yard all the time and my kids love watching them and admiring them. The lizard is unharmed.
- Not domesticated. They are not accustomed to humans.
- We co-evolve by mostly ignoring each other. The lizards around our house are skittish, yet they remain right around the door, in the yard, etc. I do not think that they are accustomed to us, yet we can get close enough to them at times to admire them from close range, so they are obviously not harmed by us, either.

7.
- Common Name: Peach
- Scientific Name: Prunus Persica
- Interaction: Mutualistic. Peach trees are planted and cared for by humans, but I believe we benefit more, because we get to enjoy them when we eat them.
- Domesticated. Farmers plant and raise the trees, then sell the fruit.
- We co-evolve in that manner: purchase the seeds, baby trees, plant them, nourish them, pick the fruit, and sell it. However, we can grow them in places outside of their natural environment, so we co-evolve together nicely.

8.
- Common Name: Housefly
- Scientific Name: Musca Domestica
- Interaction: Hmmm... this one is more confusing. I suppose humans benefit because flies decompose certain nasty dead and decaying materials. Yet, they can make us ill (they carry over 100 pathogens), and are horribly annoying. So, we usually swat them. They definitely do not benefit from humans. I think this relationship would be parasitic, b/c we benefit from their ability to decompose, and they are often harmed by humans.
- Domesticated, in a way, but undomesticated, too. They have become accustomed to humans, to a degree, but we do not control or care for them. Unless, of course, "control" can be understood as pest control, in that we eliminate them when we can.

9.
- Common Name: Bird
- Scientific Name: Aves
- Interaction: Mostly commensal, but can be symbiotic. We benefit from their beauty, their song, the fact that they eat insects, etc. Most of the time, the bird is unharmed. Sometimes, however, they benefit too, (symbiotic), like when we provide bird baths and bird seed for them.
- Not domesticated. They are mainly wild (the ones I come in contact with, anyhow.) However, some people own them as pets, and those would obviously be domesticated.
- We co-evolve with them naturally. Since they are airborn, most people do not come into direct contact with them.

10.
- Common Name: Southern Black Widow
- Scientific Name: Latrodectus Mactans
- Interaction: Well, if you can appreciate that they feed on insects, you could say that that is a benefit to the human species. This relationship would be commensal. However, their venom is very potent, and they can be very harmful to humans. They do not benefit from humans at all, other than indirectly, when they come live in your house and get shelter without you knowing it. So, it could be considered parasitic, in this respect: they receive shelter, and we get bit.
- We co-evolve with them by being ignorant of their existence, and when we are made aware of it, we usually squish them.

11.
- Common Name: Scorpion
- Scientific Name: Scorpiones Arachnida
- Interaction: Again, scorpions eat insects, so that could be considered beneficial to humans. Scorpions do not benefit at all from humans. In this respect, the relationship would be considered commensal. However, I would rather see pretty much any insect in the world before a scorpion, and I got stung by one just last week. So in this scenario, I don't think humans benefit from them at all, but they don't benefit either. What kind of relationship is that? :)
- We co-evolve by avoiding them as much as possible, and they co-evolve with us by defending themselves.

12.
- Common Name: Cricket
- Scientific Name: Gryllidae
- Interaction: Commensal: Crickets are omnivores and scavengers feeding on organic materials, as well as decaying plant material, fungi, and some seedling plants. In this way, humans benefit from them, but I can't see any way they benefit from us.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve by mostly ignoring each other. (Except when they're chirping outside your window driving you nuts and you have to go scare them away.)

13.
- Common Name: Mosquito
- Scientific Name: Culicidae
- Interaction: Parasitic. They drink our blood, and make us susceptible to diseases.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve by using bug spray and smacking them when we see them.

14.
- Common Name: Strawberries
- Scientific Name: Fragaria Ananassa
- Interaction: Symbiotic. We plant them and take care of them (at least, the farmers who sell them), and then we get to enjoy them by eating them.
- Both domesticated and not domesticated (some are still wild).
- We co-evolve by growing them, eating them, and then re-growing them.

15.
- Common Name: S. Epidermis (Found on skin and in nasal passages.)
- Scientific Name: Staphylococcus Epidermidis
- Interaction: Parasitic. We receive no benefits from this bacteria. It lives on our skin, and if the skin is punctured, CAN cause disease.
- Not domesticated.
- Humans have always co-evolved with this bacteria. It is invisible to us and does not bother us, unless a wound becomes infected with it, and then it is treated with antibiotics.

16.
- Common Name: Spider Mites
- Scientific Name: Tetranychus Urticae (Plant feeding mite found in dry areas.)
- Interaction: Parasitic. They can cause significant damage to plants because they puncture the plant's cells for food. The plant (nor humans) receive any benefit from them.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve without really noticing each other. They are minuscule. If we were to interact with them at all, it would be to eliminate them with some sort of pesticide.

17.
- Common Name: Rose
- Scientific Name: Rosa Rosaceae
- Interaction: Symbiotic. We plant them, nurture them, water them, feed them, and we enjoy their beauty and scent.
- Domesticated.
- We co-evolve in the same manner as described above under "Interaction".

18.
- Common Name: Yellojwacket
- Scientific Name: Dolichovespula Arenaria
- Interaction: Symbiotic. Humans benefit minimally because they are MINOR pollinators. They only benefit from humans when humans plant flowers / bushes for them to pollinate. However, some might argue that the relationship is parasitic, in the sense that they are only minor pollinators, and can sting humans. They can even cause death if a whole bunch of them swarm a human.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve through avoidance, both ways. We avoid them so we won't get stung. They usually avoid people because there is no benefit for them to interact with us.

19.
- Common Name: Moth
- Scientific Name: Insecta Lepidoptera
- Interaction: Parasitic, though it depends on what kind of moth. Most moths (or their larvae) are extremely destructive to trees, fruit trees, and forests because they feed on them. So, they receive nourishment, but they can kill the trees. However, if you were specifically talking about the silkworm (larvae of a certain kind of moth), you would have to say symbiotic, because humans benefit from their silk.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve (again) by ignoring each other. Humans mostly find them a nuisance, but they really pay no attention to us at all.

20.
- Common Name: Lettuce (in salad)
- Scientific Name: Lactuca Sativa
- Interaction: Mutualism. We plant, nourish and grow it. We also then eat it as a form of nourishment, which seems like the better deal of the two.
- Domesticated.
- Co-evolve by taking care of it and then consuming it.

21.
- Common Name: Ladybug
- Scientific Name: Coccinellidae
- Interaction: Commensal. Humans benefit, because they feed on small insects and they are fun and "friendly" for children to interact with. They do not benefit from us, though.
- Not domesticated.
- They don't bother us, and we don't bother them! :)

22.
- Common Name: Coffee
- Scientific Name: Coffea Canephora
- Interaction: Symbiotic. It is planted and grown commercially, and then humans enjoy it in liquid form.
- Domesticated.
- We cultivate it, sell it, and drink it.

23.
- Common Name: Beetle
- Scientific Name: Coleoptera
- Interaction: Commensal. We benefit from them because they break down animal and plant debris. I don't think they benefit from us, but we do not harm them, either. (Generally speaking.)
- Not domesticated.
- We pretty much ignore each other.

Ethical Issues Essay: World Resource Use

2008-07-22T19:30:00.000-07:00

World Population Total

World Population Growth Rate

It is abundantly clear that, worldwide, we are in danger of exhausting our natural resources. Our nonrenewable resources, those limited in supply, consist of things like land, fossil fuels and minerals. It seems that, eventually, it is inevitable that these resources will run out completely. Even our renewable resources (water, food, certain forms of energy) are in danger, because consumption is threatening to overcome the rate of replenishment. An entirely different concern is directly related to the problem of the exhaustion of our natural resources: pollution and loss of biodiversity, habitats, etc. These issues should be of great concern to all of us.
Initially, people thought that fertility rates alone were the main contributors to the loss of our resources. Obviously, they were right, to an extent. High fertility rates equal population booms, which equals strain on resources. However, the theory that this is the only factor causing this major strain is very clearly wrong. Consider China, the world's most populous country. When they realized how their population was effecting their consumption of resources, they decided to impose a 0 population growth plan, that limited each couple to only 2 children. Because of this, the country has decreased their fertility rate. Why, then, has their resource use (especially in respect to energy) continued to soar? First, while it is true that couples were having less children, the fact is that there were MORE couples to have children, due to previous population booms. The idea that the two children simply replaced the parents, and there was therefore no growth, was a fallacy. This is because each couples children would then go and have children themselves. Now, the family unit consisted of the couple, their two children, and the two children each of their two children. Obviously, this continues the population growth. To further explore this idea, consider the following fact: birth rates have dropped to nearly half of what they were in 1950, worldwide. (See above chart: World Population Growth Rate.) However, the world population will continue to increase. (See above chart: World Population Total.) So, even when people are limited in the amount of children they have, populations continue to grow, and the more people there are, the greater the strain on resources.
However, there are other factors that contribute to this strain. When it comes to energy consumption, "When a North American couple stops at two children, it is the equivalent of an East Indian couple stopping at 60, or an Ethiopian couple at 600." Wow. That is a startling statistic! This makes it very clear that economic development has an even greater impact on the overconsumption of our resources than population does. How is this even possible? One only has to consider the vast differences between the "comfortable" life we experience as Americans, in comparison to the way people struggle in LDCs. I can't even imagine living somewhere where my child was in constant danger of dying due to things like limitations of healthy foods, water contamination, and disease. In fact, the mere thought of it is horrifying to me. Instead, my four year old has everything she could possibly need. She can eat as much as she wants to fill her tummy, every single day. She has the luxury of electricity: air-conditioning, fans, lighting, music, movies, television, video games, computer, etc. Her water is filtered and clean, and again, she can drink as much as she wants of it every single day. She can take her nightly bath, and go to bed clean and comfortable. She receives vaccinations to keep her safe from the diseases that could otherwise kill her. When I think about it in this way, I am reminded of how lucky she is... and I am, to live in a place where all of this is routine. So, it is alien and heartbreaking to me to think of the way people in LDCs must live. However, I also realize how unfair it is for my children to have all of these luxuries when other children struggle so, and in turn, be partially responsible for the scary situation we are in regarding the exploitation of our resources. Is it necessary for us as a family to use the amount of energy we do every single day lighting our homes, watching our tvs, using our computers and video games for pure entertainment, etc? Absolutely not. And yet, because this is the life we are accustomed to, I can hardly even imagine living without our television for a week! "The per capita energy consumption rate in the U.S. is 11000 W, the approximate rate of energy consumption of a 30,000 Kg primate." So sad, but believable, based on my above commentary.
So, the answer the question "What else strains our resources?", besides population? Over-consumption. The overuse of our resources because we have become accustomed to a certain lifestyle, as a community. Basically, we are a spoiled Nation. We have become accustomed to driving everywhere, and having "unlimited" (or so we thought) access to things like electricity and water. Should we stop worrying altogether about population growth? Absolutely not; there is no doubt that it still contributes to the problem. But it is in no way the only problem. In all honesty, the "Go Green" movement is a wonderful start and has been a long time in coming, but until people begin to realize the truly devastating nature of our current situation when it comes to the exhausting of our resources, many people will not take it seriously, and the problems we are seeing now will only get worse for future populations.

Human Populations Demographics Online Lab

2008-07-21T21:03:00.000-07:00

World Vs. High Fertility Rate Country (Ethiopia)

World Vs. Low Fertility Rate Country (Barbados)

Answer the following questions:

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate? My high fertility rate country was Ethiopia. Its fertility rate was 6.90 children.

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate? My low fertility rate country was Barbados. Its fertility rate was 1.80 children.

3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth? If a country has a high fertility rate, it means that women in their reproductive years (approximately 20-40) are producing a large number of offspring. The more women reproducing, the more young people there would be in the population. As the young population grows with more births, it is understandable that the population of young people could surpass the population of old. Future population growth would be affected because the more young people you have in a population, the more potential for growth. There would be more children who will reach reproductive years and reproduce, so the population will continue to increase.

4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people. Low fertility rate means that there are less people of reproductive age who are producing. In other words, if you have a group of 50 women who are of reproductive age, but only 10 of them reproduce, you would obviously have more middle-aged people than young, because not many are reproducing. The older generation will die of natural causes / old age, so the "largest" population would be the middle-aged people.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.
Middle Ages / Older Population:
1. Wise / Educated
2. Responsible
3. Quiet
4. Organized
5. Comfortable
6. Clean
7. Sad (Children bring joy!)
8. Efficient
9. Conservative
10. Lacking in energy
Children / Young Population:
1. Energetic
2. Boisterous
3. Happy- Family Units
4. Carefree
5. Joyous
6. Disorganized
7. Loud
8. Supportive
9. More diverse
10. More culturally accepting

Compendium Review Chapter 24- Pictures

2008-07-21T15:57:00.001-07:00

Species Extinction by State

Biodiversity Loss

Wind Farm

Global Warming

Desertification Risk

(World Map- Population Density)

Compendium Review Chapter 24

2008-07-21T15:18:00.000-07:00

I. Human Population Growth
II. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
III. Biodiversity
IV. Working Toward a Sustainable Society

I. Human Population Growth
A. Current world population: Approx. 7 billion people.
- Exponential Growth: Increase of growth by a great deal.
- Growth Rate: Determined by considering the difference between the number of persons born per year and the number who die per year. Rates are recorded per 1000 people.
- Biotic Potential: Maximum growth rate under ideal conditions.
- Growth declines due to factors such as food and space.
- Carrying Capacity: Maximum population that the environment can support for an indefinite period.
B. MDCs Versus the LDCs
1b. MDCs: More Developed Countries: (countries like N American and Europe.) MDCs are those in which populatin growth is modest and the people enjoy a good standard of living.
- 1850-1950: Big population increases due to development of modern medicine and improvements in public health and socioeconomic conditions. Since then, the decline in death rate was folllowed by a decline in birthrate, so there has only been modest growth since 1950.
- Population by 2050 is expected to be about 1.2 billion.
2b. LDCs: Less-developed countries: (Africa, Asia)
- Death rate declined steeply w/ modern medicine, but birthrate remained high.
- Women in sub-Saharan Africa average 5 children each.
- Population by 2050 is expected to be about 8 billion.
- Asia is the "worst", in that they are expected to experience acute water scarcity, loss of biodiversity, and more urban pollution. 12 of 15 most polluted cities are located in Asia.
(Insert World Map / Population Density picture / mapsofworld.com / http://mapsofworld.com/world-population-density.htm)
C. Comparing Age Structure: Populations have 3 age groups: pre-reproductve, reproductive, and postreproductive.
- Replacement Reproduction: The idea of couples limiting themselves to 2 children equalling zero population grwoth.
- Untrue, beccause since more young women are entering the reproductive years than older women leaving them, the population continues to increase. (Mader 512-513)
II. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
A. Resources used the most by humans: land, water, food, energy, and minerals.
1a. Nonrenewable Resources: Limited in supply. Land, fossil fuels, and minerals is finite and can be exhausted.
- Renewable Resources: Capable of being naturally replenished. Water, certain forms of energy, plants, animals, etc. can be replenished.
B. Pollution: Side effect of resource consumption. Any alteration of the environment in an undesirable way.
- Often caused by human activity. Effect is proportional to the size of the population.
1b. Land: Worldwide, there are approx. 83 persons per square mile of all available land.
- Land is alse required for agriculature, power plants, highways, other buildings (hospitals), etc., in addition to homes.
2b. Beaches and Human Habitation: Approx 40% of world population lives within 60 miles of a coastline, and is expected to increase.
- Causes beach erosion, loss of habitat for marine organisms, and loss of buffer zone for storms.
- Particularly susceptible to pollution.
3b. Semiarid Lands and Human Habitation: 40% of Earth's lands are deserts.
- Desertification: The conversion of semiarid land to desertlike conditions.
- Begins w/ overgrazing of land. Soil can't hold rainwater, so it runs off instead of nourishing life. Any vegetation is removed by humans, and results in a lifeless desert.
(Insert Desertification Risk picture / www.sou.edu http://www.sou.edu/Geography/JONES/GEOG111.112/atlas/atlas.htm)
4b. Tropical Rain Forest and Human Habitation:
- Deforestation: Removal of trees.
- People are settling tropical rain forests, like the Amazon. This land then becomes subject to desertification.
- Land quickly loses its fertility because most of the nutrients are in trees or other vegetation.
- Loss of biodiversity.
C. Water: Worldwide, 70% of all freshwater is used to irrigate crops.
- In MDCs, more water is usde for bathing, flushing toilets, and watering lawns than for drinking and cooking.
- humans increase the supply of freshwater by damming rivers and withdrawing water from aquifers.
1c. Dams: Worlwide, 45,000 dams catch 14% of all precipitation runoff, provide water for up to 40% of irrigated land, and provide approx. 65 countries w/ more than 1/2 of their electricity.
- Lots of water loss due to evaporatin and seepage into underlying rock beds.
- Salt left behind by evap. and runoff increases alinity and can make a river's water unusable.
- Hold back less h2n w/ sediment buildup.
2c. Aquifers: Reservoirs found just below or as much as 1km below surface.
- Causes ground-water depletion.
- Consequences: Causing land subsidence, a settling of soil as it dries out. Causes surface of ground to drop. Subsidence causes damage to canals, buildings, and underground pipes.
- Can cause sinkholes: Underground collapsing of cavern when water no longer holds up roof.
- Saltwater Intrusion: As water is withdrawn, water table can lower to the point that seawater backs up into streams and aquifers, which reduces supply of freshwater.
3c. Conservation of Water:
- By 2025, approx. 2/3 of world's population may be living in countries facing seriuos water shortages.
- Possible solutions: Planting drought and salt-tolerant crops, using drip irrigation, re-use of water, and adopting conservation measures. (Mader 514-515)
D. Food: Comes from growing crops, raising animals, and fishing the seas.
1d. Harmful practices of farming methods:
- Monoculture: planting of only a few genetic varieties means a single type of parasite can cause total devestation.
- Heavy use of ferilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. (Causing water pollution, decreased soil fertility, development of cancer.)
- Agricultural runoff: Causes chemicals to enter our water supply.
- Generous irrigation: Too much water is extracted from aquifers.
- Excessive fuel consumption.
2d. Soil Loss and Degredation: Land that is good for farming and grazing animals is being degraded worlwide.
- Soil erosion causes loss of topsoil, causing desertification. Farmland is unproductive.
- U.S. and Canada have the highest rates of soil erosion in the world.
- Salinization: Accumulation of mineral salts due to evaporation of excess irrigation water. Makes land unsuitable for growing crops.
3d. Green Revolutions: Dramatic increase in yield of crops in LDSs due to introduction of new varieites of crops. Still require high levels of fertilizer, water, and pesticides, so they cause the same problem as modern farming methods.
4d. Genetic Engineering: Can produce transgenic plants resistant to insects and herbicides. Soil erosion is minimized.
5d. Domestic Livestock: 2/3 of cropland is devoted to producing livestock feed. Therefore, raising livestock accouts for much of the pollution associated with farming.
- Problems: waste, water use for washing livestock, etc. (Mader 516-519)
E. Energy:
1e. Nonrenewable Sources: Nuclear power (approx. 6% of world's energy supply) and fossil fuels (approx. 75%).
- Nuclear power: Not used very much because of nuclear power dangers and radioactive wastes.
- Fossil Fuels: Oil, natural gas, and coal. Derived from compressed remains of ploants and animal that died many thousands of years ago. U.S. is only 5% of world's population, yet it uses more than half of the fossil fuel energy supply! Pollutants are released into the air as it burns.
2e. Fossil Fuels and Global Climate Change:
- Burning of fossil fuels and burning of forests has caused increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
- Human activities cause emission of other gases, too, such as methane. These are greenhouse gases, because they allow solar radiation to pass through but hinder the escape of infrared heat back into space.
- Global Warming: Earth may warm to temps never before experienced by living things. If this happens, glaciers will melt, sea levels will rise, and coastal cities could be threatened. Would endanger coral reefs, present assmeblage of species in ecosystems will be disrupted as species migrate north for cooler weather. Loss of species unable to migrate.
(Insert Global Warming picture / global.mitsubishielectric.com / http://global.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/solar/environment/main.html)
3e. Renewable Energy Sources: Hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar.
- Hydropower: Converts energy of falling water into electricity. Approx. 10% of electric power generated in US, and almost 98% of total renewable energy used.
- Geothermal Energy: Uranium, thorium, radium, and plutonium undergo radioactive decay below Earth's surface and heat the surrounding rocks. When they are in contact w/ water, it heats water. Can be piped up to surface for use.
- Wind Power: Space needed for wind farms that produce electricity is comparable to amount of land required by a coal-fired power plant or solar energy system. Expected to increase use in future.
(Insert Wind Farm picture / www.ronsaari.com / http://www.ronsaari.com/stockImages/windmills/WindFarmPalmSpringsCA.php)
- Energy and the Solar-Hydrogen Revolution: Solar energy must be collected, converted, and stored. Can be used for passive-solar heating of houses, and heat can be sotred in water tanks, rocks, bricks, etc.
- Photovoltaic (solar) cell: A wafer of electron-emitting metal is in contact with another metal that collects the eletrons and passes them along into wires in a steady stream. These cells can be placed on roofs to generate electricity. Can be used to create hydrogen fuel, to be used in future cars. (Mader 520-522)
F. Minerals: Nonrenewable raw materials in Earth's crust that can be extracted. Includes fossil fuels, nonmetallic raw materials, such as sand, gravel, and phophate; and metals, such as aluminum copper, iron, lead, and gold.
- Heavy metals are dangerous to humans: lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, tin, chromium, zinc, and copper. Used in electronics, medicines, paints, etc. Inhibit vital enzymes in body.
- Strip / surface mining: One of greatest threats to maintenance of ecosystem and biodiversity. Rain washes toxic waste deposits into streams and rivers.
1f. Hazardous Wastes: Nine most common: heavy metals, synthetic organic compounds, benzene, polychlorinated biphenyls, and chloroform.
- Chlorofluorocarbons: Type of halogenated hydrocarbon in which both chlorine and flourine atoms replace some of the hydrogen atoms. Thin ozone shield, which is essentail for protection of utraviolet radiation.
- Biological Magnification: Wastes that enter and accumulate in the fat or organisms, ans since they are not excreted, they become more and more concentrated as they pass along a food chain. (Mader 522-523)
III. Biodiversity
A. Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, described in terms of the number of different species.
- We are in biodiversity crisis: Number of extinctions expected to occur in the near future is unparallel in the history of the Earth.
B. Loss of Biodiversity is due to all of the following:
- Habitat Loss: Human occupation and expansion.
- Alien Species (Exotics): Nonnative members of an ecosystem. Humans introduce them to ecosystems due to colonization, horticulture, and agriculture, and accidental transport. Some are invasive, and crowd out native species.
- Pollution: Acid deposition (weakens trees), global warming (loss of habitat, etc.), ozone depletion (CFCs), and synthetic organic chemicals.
- Overexploitation: Too many individuals are taken from a wild population so it is reduced in number. ie. exotic pets. (Poaching, overfishing, etc.)
- Disease: Exposure to domestic animals and their pathogens occur when humans encroach on wildlife habitats.
(Insert Biodiversity Loss picture / www.greenfacts.org http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/l-3/7-climate-change-biodiversity-loss.htm)
C. Direct Value of Biodiversity: Direct value of wildlife is related to their medicianl value, agricultural value,and consumptive use value.
1c. Medicinal Value: Potent medicines are dervied from plants, fungus, some animals (ie horseshoe crab) and certain types of bacteria.
2c. Agricultural Value: Crops are dervied from wild plants that have been modified to be high producers. Biological pest control, bees pollinating plants, etc/
3c. Consumptive Use Value: Catching of fishes, crustatceans, and mammals. Products sold in marketplaces. Trees for wood, etc.
D. Indirect Value of Biodiversity: Services that are pervasive and not easily discernable.
- Waste Disposal: Decomposers break down dead organic matter and other types of wastes to inorganic nutrients that are used by the producers within ecosystems. If not for this service, Earth would be covered in waste. Some biological communities can break down and immobilize pollutants.
- Provision of freshwater: Water cycle supplies freshwater to terrestrial ecosystems. Provide us w/ fish and other food. "Sponge Effect": Forests soak up water and release it at a regular rate.
- Prevention of Soil Erosion: Intact ecosystems naturally retain soil and prevent soil erosion.
- Biogeochemical Cycles: Biodiversity within ecosystems contributes to the workings of the water, phophorus, nitrogen, carbon, and other biogeochemical cycles, which we depend on for freshwater.
- Regulation of Climate: Trees provide shade and reduce the need for fans and air conditioners. Forests ameliorate the climate because they take up carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide has a significant impact on global warming, which is increased with deforestation.
- Ecotourism: Relaxing in the wild! :) (Mader 524-530)
IV. Working Toward a Sustainable Society
A. Sustainable Society: One that could always provide the same amount of goods and services for future generations as it does at present. Biodiversity would also be preserved.
1a. Today's Unsustainable Society: Population growth and excessive resource consumption stresses the environment, including worldwide pollution and the extnction of wildlife.
(Insert Species Extinction by State picture / www.unl.edu / http://www.unl.edu/nac/conservation/atlas/Map_Html/Biodiversity/National/Species_Extinctions/Species_extinctions.htm)
2a. Characteristics of a Sustainable Society:
- Makes use of only renewable solar energy.
- Materials cycle through the various populations back to the producer.
- Protection of natural ecosystmes.
- Efficiency (cars, etc.)
3a. Rural Sustainability:
- Emphasis on preservation: ecosystems, agricultural land, groves of fruit trees, etc. Possible steps: plant cover crops, multiuse farming, replenish soil nutrients, low flow or trickle irrigation, increase planting of cultivars, use precision farming, use integrated pest management, etc.
4a. Urban Sustainability:
- Sharing of resources. Possible steps: Energy-efficient transportation system, solar or geothermal energy, utilize green roofs, improve storm-water management, plant native species grasses, create greenbelts, etc.
B. Assessing Economic Well-Being and Quality of Life:
- Gross National Product: Measurement of the flow of money from consumers to businesses, in the form of goods and services purchased. (Total costs of manufacturing, production and srvices in the form of salaries, wages, mortgage and rent, interets and loans, taxes, and profit. Use value, option value, existence value, aesthetic value, cultural value, and scientific and educational value are all factors. (Mader 530-533)

Ok... So I'm not going to lie... I had a REALLY hard time fitting the last part of your powerpoint into chapter 24. I felt like I was reading the wrong chapter, or something. So, I'm including it here in the end:

In a community, relationships among species can be beneficial, damaging or neutral:
Symbiotic: mutually beneficial, both species benefit
Parasitic: one species benefits (“parasite”) and the other is harmed (“host”)
Commensal: One species benefits, the other is unharmed
Mutualism: both species benefit, like symbiosis, but it may appear one species has the advantage, but evolutionarily, over the long-term, both benefit
Predation: Usually considered parasitic, where the predator is the parasite, but can also be seen as mutualistic.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 26)

A. Relationships Among Species
- We do still have ecological relationships with “wild” species. Examples:
- Hunt mushrooms
- Create game reserves
- Create national parks
- Household and urban/rural “pests” (e.g. molds, sewer rats)
- Symbiotic micro-organisms (skin and mouth bacteria)
- Disease-causing micro-organisms
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 26)

B. Our Relationships w/ Domesticated Species
- But mostly we have tight relationships with domesticated species. Basis for ecological relationship:
- Food and agriculture (by far most common—food crops and animals)
- Transportation (“beasts of burden”)
- Care and protection (pets)
- Laboratory study and production
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 29)

Compendium Review Chapter 23- Pictures

2008-07-18T21:27:00.001-07:00

Phosphorous Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle

Greenhouse Effect

The Water Cycle

Grazing and Detrital Food Webs

Terrestrial Biomes

Compendium Review Chapter 23

2008-07-18T21:07:00.000-07:00

I. The Nature of Ecosystems
II. Energy Flow
III. Global Biogeochemcial Cycles

I. The Nature of Ecosystems
A. Biosphere: Where organisms are found on planet Earth, from the atmosphere above to the depths of the oceans below, and everything in between.
B. Entire Biosphere is one giant Ecosystem: A place where organisms interact among themselves and with the physical and chemical environment.
- These interactions help maintain both the ecosystem and the biosphere.
- Human interactions can alter interactions between organisms and their environments in ways that reduce the abundance and diversity of life within the ecosystem.
C. Ecosystems: Many different types of terrestial ecosystems, also called biomes.
- Biomes: Temperature and rainfall define the biomes, whose organisms are adapted to the regional climate.
- Examples: Tropical rain forest, savanna, temperate grasslands, temperate forests, deserts, taiga, and tundra.
(Insert Terrestrial Biomes picture / ecology.botany.ufl.edu / http://ecology.botany.ufl.edu/ecologyf02/biodiv.html )
- Aquatic ecosystems: Divided by whether they are freshwater or salt water.
D. Biotic Components of an Ecosystem:
1d. Abiotic components: nonliving.
2d. Biotic components: living things categorized according to the food source.
- Autotrophs: Require only inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source to produce organic nutrients for their own use and for the other members of a community. They are called producers. (ie algae, photosynthetic organisms.)
- Heterotrophs: Need a source of organic nutrients. They are consumers.
* Herbivores: Animals that eat plants or algae. (ie insects, protists.)
* Carnivores: Feed on other animals. (ie birds that feed on insects, hawks feed on birds, etc.)
* Omnivores: Feed on both. (ie humans.)
* Detritus Feeders: Organisms that feed on detritus, which is decomposing particles of organic matter. (ie Earthworms, beetles, etc.)
E. Niche: Role of an organism in an ecosystem: how it eats its food and what eats it, and how it interacts with other populations in the same community.
F. Chemical Flow and Chemical Cycling
1f. Every ecosystem is characterized by two phenomena: energy flow and chemical cycling.
- Energy flow: Begins when producers absorb solar energy.
- Chemical Cycling: Begins when producers take in inorganic nutrients from the physical environment.
- Next, through photosynthesis, producers make organic nutrients directly for themselves and indirectly for the other populations of the ecosystem.
* Energy Flow: As nutrients pass from one population to another, all energy content is converted to heat, which dissipates in the environment.
- Most ecosystems require a constant supply of solar energy.
* Chemicals cycle when inorganic nutrients are returned to the producers from the atmosphere or soil. (Mader 493-495)
II. Energy Flow
A. Various interconnecting paths of energy flow are represented by a food web, which is a diagram that describes trophic (feeding) relationships.
- Two examples: Grazing Web- Begins with an oak tree and grass. Detrital Web- Begins with detritus and the decomposers found within detritus.
(Insert Grazing and Detritus Food Webs picture / project.bio.iastate.edu / http://project.bio.iastate.edu/Courses/biol123/lectures/Lecture06-Ecosystems/slide10.htm)
B. Trophic Levels:
1b. Food Chains: Diagrams that show a single path of energy flow. Ex. In grazing food chain, you would have leaves, followed by caterpillars, followed by birds, followed by hawks. In detrital food chain, you would have detritus, followed by earthworms, followed by shrews.
2b. Trophic level: Composed of all the organisms that feed at a particular link in a food chain. Example: In grazing food web, trees are producers (first trophic level), first series of animals are primary consumers (second trophic level), and the next group of animals are secondary consumers (third trophic level).
C. Ecological Pyramids: The flow of energy with large losses between successive trophic levels.
- Only about 10% of the energy of one trophic level is available to the next tropic level.
1c. Biomass: The number of organisms multiplied by the weight of organic matter within one organism. (Mader 497-498)
III. Global Biogeochemical Cycles
A. All organisms require a variety of organic and / or inorganic nutrients.
1a. Biogeochemical Cycles: Pathways by which chemicals circulate through ecosystems involve both living (biotic) and nonliving (geological) components.
- Gaseous: Element returns to and is withdrawn from the atmosphere as a gas. (ie carbon and nitrogen cycles.)
- Sedimentary: The chemical is absorbed from the soil by plant roots, passed to heterotrophs, and returned to soil by decomposers. (ie phosphorus cycle.)
2a. Chemical Cycling involves a reservoir, an exchange pool, and a biotic community.
- Human activities remove chemicals from reservoirs and exchange pools, and make them available to the biotic community. Can result in pollution, because it upsets the normal balance of nutrients for producers in the environment.
B. The Water Cycle:
1b. Evaporation, precipitation, runoff, etc. See picture. All water is eventually returned to the sea. Aquifer: Rock layers that contain water and release it.
(Insert Water Cycle picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 18)
2b. Human Activities:
-Humans interfere w/ water cycle in three ways: First, they take water from aquifers. Second, They clear vegetation from land and build roads and buildings that prevent percolation and increase runoff. Third, they interfere with the natural processes that purify water and instead add pollutants like sewage and chemicals to water.
C. The Carbon Cycle:
1c. Carbon dioxide in atmosphere is the exchange pool for the carbon cycle.
- In this cycle, organisms in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems exchange carbon dioxide with the atmosphere. ie. Plants take co2 from air, and through photosynthesis, incorporate carbon into nutrients that are used by autotrophs and heterotrophs. When organisms respire, carbon is returned to the atmosphere as co2. In aquatic, it is indirect: co2 from air combines with h2o to produce bicarbonate ion, a source of carbon for algae that makes food for themselves and for heterotrophs. When aquatic organisms respire, the co2 they give off becomes bicarbonate ion.
2c. Living and dead organisms contain organic carbon and serve as one of the reservoirs for the carbon cycle. Decomposition returns co2 to the atmosphere.
3c. Fossil Fuels: When plant and animal remains are transformed into coal, oil, and natural gas.
4c. Human Activities:
- More co2 is being deposited in the atmosphere than is being removed. Largely due to burning of fossil fuels and destruction of forest. When a forest is destroyed, we reduce a reservoir and the very organisms that take up excess co2.
5c. Global Warming: Human activities emit co2 and other gases, like nitrous oxide into the atmosphere. These gases are known as greenhouse gases, because they allow solar radiation to pass through but hinder the escape of infrared rays back into space.
- Contribute to rise in Earth's ambient temperature, = global warming.
- Higher temperature = greater evaporation of h2o, forming more clouds, and setting up a positive feedback effect that will increase global warming even more.
- Other effects: Temps in polar regions rise, glaciers will melt, sea levels will rise, h2o evap. will increase, = increased rainfall along coasts and dryer conditions inland. Droughts reduce agricultural yields, trees will die, etc. Coastal cities could sink! (Mader 498-499)
(Insert Greenhouse Effect picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 21)
D. The Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen gas accounts for approx. 78% of the atmosphere.
1d. Ammonium Formation and Use:
- Nitrogen fixation occurs when nitrogen gas is converted to ammonium, a form plants can use.
2d. Nitrate Formation and Use:
- Plants can use nitrates as a source of nitrogen.
- Nitrification: Production of nitrates during the nitrogen cycle. Can occur when cosmic radiation, meteor trails, and lightning provide high energy needed for nitrogen to react with oxygen. Or, when ammonium in the soil is converted to nitrate by soil bacteria, or when nitrate-producing bacteria converts nitrite to nitrate.
- Assimilation: Plants take up ammonia and nitrate from the sol and use these ions to produce proteins and nucleic acids.
(Insert Nitrogen Cycle picture / www.stormfront.org / http://www.stormfront.org/forum/showthread.php?t=325972)
3d. Formation of Nitrogen Gas from Nitrate:
- Denitrification: The conversion of nitrate back to nitrogen gas, which enters the atmosphere. Counterbalances nitrogen fixatin except for human activities.
4d. Human Activities: Significantly alter the transfer rates in the nitrogen cycle by producing fertilizers from nitrogen- nearly doubles the fixation rate. Runs off into water, creates overgrowth of algae, causes over-enrichment, and when algae die off, increased decomposer populations use up all oxygen in water, and results in massive fish kill.
1e. Acid Deposition: Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide enter atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels. These gases combine with water vapor to form acids that return to the earth, and their deposit affects forest and lakes.
- Creation of smog, and trapped pollutants.
E. The Phosphorus Cycle: Phosphorous trapped in oceanic sediments moves onto land after a geological upheaval. Weathering of rocks places phosphate ions into soil. Some of this phosphate is used by plants in a variety of molecules, and the nucleotides that become a part of DNA and RNA. Animals eat producers and incorporate some of the phosphate into teeth, bones, and shells, which take many years to decompose.
(Insert Phosphorous Cycle picture / www.biologycorner.com / http://www.biologycorner.com/bio4/notes/chap45.html )
1e. Phosphorus and Water Pollution:
- Cultural Eutrophication: Overenrichment of waterways due to humans use of phosphate for fertilizer, animal wastes from livestock feedlots, and discharge from sewage treatment plants.
- Biological Magnification: Occurs as materials pass along a food chain and become more and more concentrated because they remain in body and are not excreted.
- Pollutants: Waste dumping, offshore mining and shipping, oil spills, etc.
- Many species are at the brink of extinction. (Mader 500-505)

Compendium Review Chapter 22- Pictures

2008-07-18T12:09:00.000-07:00

Cro-Magnon Skull

Neanderthal and Modern Human Skull Comparison

Homo erectus

Homo habilis

Evolution of Primates

Human / Chimpanzee Skeletons 2

Human / Chimpanzee Skeletons 1

Evidence for Historical Fact of Evolution

Ambulocetus: Believes to have given rise to whales.

Charles Darwin

Early Earth

Stanley Miller Experiment

Stanley Miller

History of Life on Earth Chart

Compendium Review Chapter 22

2008-07-18T11:49:00.000-07:00

I. Origin of Life
II. Biological Evolution
III. Classification of Humans
IV. Evolution of Hominids
V. Evolution of Humans

I. Origin of Life
A. Fundamental Principle of Biology: All living things are made of cells and every cell comes from a preexisting cell.
1a. Chemical Evolution: A slow increase in the complexity of chemicals. (Mader 468)
B. To understand evolution, we must appreciate deep time- time stretching beyond what is easy to intuitively grasp.
1b. Toilet paper analogy—if a roll of toilet paper is Earth history, humans reside in the shreds at the end of the very last sheet. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4)
(Insert Key Events of History of Life picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 5)
C. The Primitive Earth:
1c. Sun and Planets: Probably formed from aggregates of dust particles and debris,taking approx. 10-billion years.
- 4.6 billion years ago: solar system in place.
2c. First atmosphere was probably formed by gases escaping from volcanoes. Therefore, the primitive atmosphere would have been made up of mostly water vapor, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, along with small amounts of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. (Free oxygen was scarce, if any.)
- Earth was extremely hot, and as it cooled, it formed dense clouds.
- Water vapor condensed to liquid water, and rain began to fall. = Oceans. (Mader 468)
- How do we know? Existing ancient rocks. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
D. Small Organic Molecules:
1d. Rain washed gases into oceans.
- The great deal of energy present (ie volcanoes, lightning, ultraviolet radiation, etc.) made the primitive gases react with one another and produce small organic compounds, such as nucleotides and amino acids.
- Experiment conducted by Stanley Miller confirms this theory. (Mader 468-469)
(Insert Stanley Miller picture / fig.cox.miami.edu / http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/life)
(Insert Stanly Miller Experiment picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 7)
E. Macromolecules: Newly formed small organic molecules probably joined to produce organic macromolecules.
1e. RNA- first hypothesis: The only macromolecule needed to progress toward formation of the first cell was RNA (ribonucleic acid). It is possible that, then, RNA could have carried out the processes of life commonly associated today with DNA.
2e. Protein-first hypothesis: Amino acids join together when exposed to dry heat. This theory suggests that amino acids collected in shallow puddles, and the heat of the sun caused to to form proteinoids (small polypeptides) that have some catalytic properties. When returned to water, they form microspheres, sturctues that are made of only protein but have mnay of the properties of a cell.
F. The Protocell: Can carry on metablism but not reproduce.
- Could have come about by a lipd that was made available to microspheres, the two tend to associate, and produce a pipid-protein membrane.
- Protocell could have used the abundant small organic molecules in the ocean as food.
- Protocell was most likely a heterotroph: organism that takes in preformed food.
- Also would have been a fementer, since there was no free oxygen. (Mader 469)
(Insert Early Earth picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
G. The True Cell: How did the first cell acquire both DNA and enzymatic proteins?
1g. RNA-first Hypothesis: First cell had RNA genes that, similar to mRNA, could have specified protein synthesis. Some of these proteins would have been enzymes. One of these enzymes may have used RNA as a template to form DNA, and replication would have then proceeded normally.
2g. Protein-first Hypothesis: Some of the proteins in the protocell would have evolved the enzymatic ability to synthesize DNA from nucleotides in the ocean. DNA would have then gone on to specify protein synthesis, and the cell could have acquired all its enzymes, inlcuding those that replicate DNA. (Mader 468-469)
II. Biological Evolution
A. Since the first true cells were the simplest of life cells, they must have been prokaryotic cells, lacking a nucleus.
- Eukaryotic cells, which have nuclei, evolved from these first cells.
- Multi-cellular organisms and other kingdoms evolved, like fungi and plants.
B. Biological Evolution: The process by which a species changes throughout time. Two important aspects:
- Descent from a common ancestor, which explains what all living things have a commno chemistry and cellular structure.
- Adaptation to the environment, which enables an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment. (Explains diversity of life.)
C. Common Descent: Life forms change over time and from place to place.
1c. Charles Darwin: English naturlaist who first formulated the teory of evolution based on his travels at the age of 22.
- Gathered evidence to support the idea of common descent, based in fossil, anatomical, and biogeographical data. (Mader 470)
(Insert Charles Darwin picture /www.paracompusa.com / http://www.paracompusa.com/SmartScience/Popa/Vol4-2.html)
D. Evidence for Historical Fact of Evolution
1d. Fossil record
–Most rocks contain fossils (in sedimentary rock). (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 8) Best evidence because they are the actual remains of species that lived on Earth at least 10000 years ago and up to billions of years ago. Includes trails, footprints, burrows, casts, preserved droppings, bone, impressions, and insects trapped in tree resin.
- Paleontologists: Find and remove fossils from strata.
- Fossil Record: History of life recorded by fossils.
(Mader 470)
–Long-term change in biological communities. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 8)
- In general, life progressed from the simple to the complex: Unicellular prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotes, multicellular eukaryotes, fishes, terrestial plants, animals. On land, nonflowering plants, flowering plants, amphibians, reptiles (including dinosaurs), birds, etc. (Mader 471)
(Insert picture of Ambulocetus / http://www.flickr.com/ / http://www.flickr.com/photos/68509222@N00/384835318/)
2d. Transitional Fossils: Those that have characteristics of two different groups: origin of mammals, origin of birds.
- Anatomical similarities.
- Shared embryological features.
- Shared biochemical and genetic features.
(Insert Evidence for Historical Fact of Evolution picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 8)
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 8)
E. Different Types of Evidence Support the Hypothesis that Organisms are Related Through Common Descent.
1e. Biogeographical Evidence: Biogeography: The study of the distribution of plants and animals in different places throughout the world.
- Life forms evolved in a particular locale and then spread out, which provides for a variety of plants and animals where geography separates continents, islands, or seas.
- Ex. Rabbits were not found in S. America, though the geography was suited for them, because they evolved somewhere else and could not reach S. America.
2e. Anatomical Evidence: Common Descent allows for the explanation for anatomical similarities among organisms.
- Ex. Forelimbs are used by birds, whales, horses, lizards, and monkeys, for different purposes.
- These are Homologous Structures: similar in structure anatomically because they are inherited from a common ancestor.
- Analogous Structures: Serve the same function, but are not constructed similarly, nor do they share a common ancestry.
- Ex. Wings of birds and insects, the jointed appendages of a lobster, and humans are analogous structures.
- Vestigal Structures: Anatomical features that are fully developed in one group of organisms, but are reduced and may have no function in similar groups.
- Ex. Ancestors of whales walked on land. "Modern" whales have a vestigial pelvic girdle and legs, but are completely aquatic. These are also explained by Common Descent. Traces of evolutionary history.
3e. Biochemical Evidence: Almost all living organisms use the same basic biochemical molecules, including DNA, ATP, etc.
- Therefore, humans share a large number of genes with much simpler organisms. Life's vast diversity has come about by only a slight difference in the regulation of genes.
F. Intelligent Design:
- Evolutionary theory has been supported by repeated scientific experiments and observations.
- Intelligent Design argues that the diversity of life could never have arisen without the involvement of an "intelligent agent". Faith-based, not science-based.
G. Natural Selection: Mechanism for adaptation.
- Adaptation: A species becomes suited to its environment.
- Critical Elements of Natural Selection are as follows:
* Variation: Individual members of a species vary in physical characteristics. Physical variations can be passed from generation to generation.
* Competition for Limited Resources: The number in each generation usually stays about the same: resources are limited and competition for resources reults in unequal reporduction among members of a population.
* Adaptation: Members of a population with advantageous traits capture more resources and are more likely to reproduce and pass on those traits. Over time, the environment "selects" for the better-adapted traits. Therefore, each subsequent generation includes more individuals that are adapted in the same way to the environment.
- Accounts for great diversity of life. (Mader 474)
III. Classification of Humans
A. Biologists classify organisms according to their evolutionary relatedness.
1a. Binomial Name: Each organism has a name that gives its genus and species.
- Organisms in the same domain have general characteristics in common.
- Those in the same genus have very specific characteristics in common.
B. DNA Data and Human Evolution: DNA data is being relied on more heavily today to trace the history of life.
1b. 1970s: Carl Woese reports that on the basis of rRNA data, there are three domains of life and the archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes than to bacteria. Animals are more closely related to fungi than plants. (Mader 475)
(Insert Three Domain System of Classification picture / kilby.sac.on.ca / http://kilby.sac.on.ca/faculty/dgalajda/oacbiology/domains__cladistics.htm)
C. Humans Are Primates
- Our closest living relatives are monkeys and apes (anthropoids).
- We share a common ancestor, most recently with apes, farther into deep time with monkeys and even farther in with lemurs and tarsurs (prosimians).
- The living species are not our actual ancestors—we need the fossil record to see them.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 9)
- Primates have mobile limbs (w/ five digits each, opposable thumb); grasping hands; a flattened face; binocular vision (including cones); a large, complex brain; and a reduced reproductive rate.
- All traits shared with humans.
D. Comparing Human Skeleton to the Chimpanzee Skeleton
1d. The genomes of humans and chimpanzees are 99% identical.
- 1% difference: Humans, not chimps, are adapted for an upright stance. (Mader 476-477)
(Insert Human / Chimpanzee Skeletons pictures / http://www.flickr.com/ / http://www.flickr.com/photos/mindfuldocumentation/71000531/)
(Insert Evolution of Primates picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 9)
IV. Evolution of Hominids
A. Evolutionary Tree: A working hypothesis of the past history of a group of organisms. (See Evolution of Primates picture.)
B. The First Hominids: Hominid refers to our branch of the evolutionary tree.
- Lineage: Any two lines of descent.
- Each lineage throughout time accumulates genetic changes, which lead to RNA and protein changes.
- Molecular data suggest that hominids split from the ape line of descent about 7 mya.
C. Hominid Features: Anatomical features are used to determine if a fossil is a hominid.
- Bipedal posture: Walking on two feet.
- Shape of the face: Flatter, more pronounced chin.
- Teeth are generally smaller and less specialized.
- Brain size.
D. Earliest Fossil Hominids
- Odest fossil: Sahelanthropus tchadensis, dated 7 mya, found in Chad, central Africa. Only found a skull.
- Orrorin tugenensis: dated 6 mya, found in eastern Africa. Limb anatomy suggests bipedal posture.
- Ardipithecus kadabba: dated between 5.8-5.2 mya.
E. Evolution of Australopithecines: Beginning of hominid line of descent.
- Group of species that evolved and diversified in Africa.
- Some were slender, some were powerful.
- Fed on soft fruits and leaves, some of the more "robust" fed on a more fibrous diet.
- First was unearthed in Southern Africa. (Australopithecus africanus)
- Walked upright. Proportions of limbs were apelike.
- Relatively large brain.
- A. afarensis: Lucy. Dated at 3.18 mya, she stood upright and walked bipedally.
Ape-like above waist (small brain) and humanlike below the waist (walked erect). Proves human characteristics did not evolve all at one time. = Mosaic evolution.
V. Evolution of Humans
A.Fossils are assigned to the genus Homo if the following criteria are met:
- Brain size is 600 cm3 or greater.
- The jaw and teeth resemble those of humans.
- Tool use is evident.
B. Early Homo: Homo habilis "handy man": Dated between 2.0 and 1.9 mya.
- May be ancestral to early humans due to larger brain size, smaller cheek teeth, possibility of speech, and indication of tool use. May have been the beginnings of society and culture, if they hunted and ate together.
(Insert Homo Habilis picture / primatas.no.sapo.pt / http://primatas.no.sapo.pt/homem.htm)
C. Homo Erectus: Fossils found in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Dated between 1.9 and 0.3 mya.
- First H. erectus to be unearthed was in 1891, by Eugene Dubois.
- Several different species are included in this group, although all are similar in appearance.
- Compared with H. habilis, H. erectus had a larger brain and a flatter face. Nose projected, much taller. Were erect, with striding gait. Skeleton still showed some australopithecine features. Believed to have migrated from Africa into Asia and Europe.
- First hominid to use fire, and fashioned more advanced tools than early Homos.
- Believed to have used "home bases".
- Language and culture.
(Insert Homo Erectus picture / www.forcesitaly.org / http://www.forcesitaly.org/italy/immagini?M=D)
D. Evolution of Modern Humans
1d. Most accept the idea that Homo sapiens (modern humans) evolved from H. erectus. (Mader 482-484)
- Ability to interbreed.
- Little anatomical difference among populations.
- Little biochemical difference among populations.
- DNA and protein analysis show recent single common ancestor within 1 million years, perhaps only 200,000 years ago. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 11)
2d. Multiregional Continuity Hypothesis: Belief that Homo sapiens evolved in several different locations. (ie. Asia, Africa, and Europe.)
3d. Others argue that it is unlikely that evolution would have produced essentially the same result in these different places. They suggest the following theory:
4d. Out-of-Africa Hypothesis: Proposes that H. sapiens evolved from H. erectus only in Africa, and thereafter migrated to Europe and Asia about 100000 years BP. This hypothesis suggests that we are more genetically similar than the other hypothesis, and this is the more accepted hyposthesis of the two.
E. Neandertals:
- First Neandertal discovered in Neander Valley, Germany, approx. 200000 years BP.
- Massive brow ridges, and their nose, jaws and teeth protruded far forward. Low forehead, lower jaw lacked a chin. Brain was slightly larger than modern humans. Heavily muscled. Lived in Europe and Asia during the lst ice age.
- Culturally advanced. May have built houses when not living in caves. Manufactured a variety of stone tools, including spear points. Hunted bears, woolly mammoths, rhinos, etc. Used and controlled fire. Buried their dead w/ flowers. may have even had a religion. Capable of thinking symbolically. (Mader 485)
(Insert Neanderthal and Modern Human Skulls Comparison picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 13)
F. Cro-Magnons: Oldest fossils to be designated Homo sapiens.
- Named after fossil location in France.
- Believed to be the modern humans who entered Asia and Europe from Africa 100000 years BP.
- Thoroughly modern appearance.
- Did not interbreed with Neanderthals, but seemed to coexist.
- Made advanced stone tools, including compound tools.
- May have been first to throw spears, and were accomplished hunters.
- Culture included art.
(Insert Cro-Magnon Skull picture / www.skadi.net / http://www.skadi.net/forum/showthread.php?t=11043)
G. Human Variation
1g. Widely distributed about the globe. Different ethnicities.
- Could be due to environmental adaptations. (ie dark and light skin)
- Bergmann's rule: animals in colder regions have a bulkier body build.
- Allen's rule: Animals in colder regions have shorter limbs, digits, and ears, to help regulate body temperature.

Embryonic and Fetal Development Online Lab

2008-07-17T16:29:00.001-07:00

Rotation

8 Weeks- All Major Body Parts are Present

Umbilical Cord Forms

Implantation

Fertilization

10 Significant Events During Embryonic / Fetal Development:

Event 1: Fertilization:
-What: Sperm penetrates the oocyte. The fusion of the oocyte with the sperm nuclei is the creation of the zygote.
- When: 1 day post ovulation.
- Why it is significant: Obviously, without this event, there would be no pregnancy / baby. I find it amazing that there is such a small period of time for fertilization to occur: ovulation usually only lasts approximately 24 hours.

Event 2: Implantation:
- What: Embryo implants itself into wall of uterus. Chorion secretes enzymes to digest away some of the tissue and blood vessels of the endometrium of the uterus.
- When: Week 2
- Why: It is important that the embryo implants in the right place, which is the uterus. The uterus sustains a healthy pregnancy. If an embryo does not implant, it results in a miscarriage. If it implants in the wrong place, like in the oviduct, it will result in an ectopic pregnancy, which is not a viable pregnancy.

Event 3: Development of Nervous System & Heart:
- What: Nervous system is first organ system to appear. Thickening appears along entire length of embryo, and invagination occurs as neural folds appear. When neural folds meet at midline, the neural tube is formed, which later develops into brain and spinal cord. Development of heart: first, there are right and left tubes, which fuse, and heart begins pumping blood.
- When: Weeks 3 & 4
- Why: These organ systems are vital to a healthy baby.

Event 4: Heartbeat can be detected.
What: The heart is fully functional, and can be seen on an ultrasound.
When: Week 4
Why: Doctors say that once a heart beat is seen, the chances of a successful pregnancy are much higher than before.

Event 5: Umbilical Cord is formed.
What: A "body stalk" connects the embryo to the chorion, and also contains the extrembryonic membrane, the allantois. Its blood vessels become the umbilical blood vessels. Head and tail then lift up, and the body stalk moves anteriorly by constriction. When this process if finished, the umbilical cord is fully formed, and it connects the developing embryo to the placenta.
When: Weeks 4-5
Why: The umbilical cord is a fetus' source of nourishment and survival.

Event 6: Brain Waves can be detected.
What: I don't really have much information for this, because I found this fact at some other website I had gone to to research the development of embryos. All I know is that the brain is functioning enough to have the waves detected.
When: Week 6
Why: I figure once the brain is fully functioning, and can be detected, it is another strong sign that the fetus is developing the way it should, and that it is strong and healthy.

Event 7: All Major Body Parts are now Present.
What: To think that a tiny little embryo (1.5 inches) has already formed all of it's major body parts!
When: Week 8
Why: Significant because it's so early in development, but all the major parts are present. (Sorry, I know it sounds repetitive, but I don't know how else to say it.)

Event 8: Ossification occurs.
What: Cartilage begins to be replaced by bone as ossification centers appear in most of the bones.
When: Month 3-4
Why: Again, a great sign of growth. When this happens, the fetus becomes "stronger", and things are developing as they should.

Event 9: Fetal Movement.
What: Although the embryo is able to move at approx. 5 weeks, fetal movement can be detected by the mother around 20 weeks for first-time mothers, and as early as 16 weeks for mothers who have had babies previously.
When: Months 4-5, depending.
Why: Fetal movement that is strong enough for a mother to feel is important because it is an indication of a healthy baby. If a mother goes a certain period of time without feeling any movement, she knows the fetus may be in distress, and can seek medical attention.

Event 10: Rotation and Birth
What: The fetus usually rotates so that its head is pointed toward the cervix. This is in preparation for birth through the birth canal. Birth- the fetus is pushed downward by contractions, the cervix stretches and the baby makes its appearance to the world.
When: Months 8-9
Why: Rotation is important because a delivery of a baby that has not rotated is much more dangerous to the fetus. The head should come out first so that the "biggest" part of the baby comes out first. When this doesn't happen, the baby can get stuck. Birth is important for obvious reasons.

Chapter 17 Compendium Review- Pictures

2008-07-16T10:13:00.001-07:00

Process of Birth

Stages of Pregnancy

Fetus- 7 Months

Fetus- 4 Months

Fetal Blood Circulation

Embryo- 8 Weeks

Pre-Embryonic Development

Cleavage

Stages of Fertilization

Chapter 17 Compendium Review

2008-07-16T09:58:00.000-07:00

I. Fertilization
II. Pre-Embryonic and Embryonic Development
III. Fetal Development
IV. Pregnancy and Birth
V. Development After Birth

I. Fertilization
A. Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg to form a zygote, the first cell of the new individual.
- Only the nucleus from the sperm head fuses with the nucleus of the egg.
- Zygote receives cytoplasm and organelles only from mother.
- Although several sperm penetrate the corona radiata ( few layers of adhering follicular cells), and several sperm attempt to penetrate the zona pellucida (the extracellular matrix surrounding the egg), only one sperm enters the egg.
- Sperm head binds tightly to zona pellucida, and acrosome releases digestive enzymes that create a pathway for the sperm through the zona pellucida.
- When the sperm binds to the egg, their plasma membranes fuse, and this sperm enters the egg entirely.
- Fusion of nucleus' occur.
- As soon as sperm touches egg, the egg's plasma membrane depolarizes to prevent the binding of any other sperm.
- Zona pellucida becomes impenetrable from any further fertilization.
(Insert Stages of Fertilization picture / http://www.fiu.edu/ / http://www.fiu.edu/~srose/femsexfiu/pregnancy.html)
II. Pre-Embryonic and Embryonic Development
A. Processes of Development:
1a. Cleavage: Immediately after fertilization, they zygote divides so that there are first 2, then 4, 8, 16, and 32 cells, etc.
- No increase in size.
-Mitotic: Each cell receives a full complement of chromosomes and genes.
(Insert Cleavage picture / dtc.pima.edu / http://dtc.pima.edu/~biology/202alpha/lesson13/lesson13c.htm)
2a. Growth: During embryonic development, cell division is accompanied by an increase in size of daughter cells.
3a. Morphogenesis: Shaping of embryo. First evident when cells move, or migrate, in relation to other cells.
4a. Differentiation: Cells take on specific structure and function. Nervous system is first.
B. Extraembryonic Membranes
1b. Not part of embryo and fetus; located outside of embryo.
2b. Chorion: Develops into fetal half of placenta, which gives embryo / fetus nourishment and oxygen and takes away its waste.
3b. Allantois: Extends away from embryo. Accumulates small amount of urine produced by fetal kidneys and gives rise to urinary bladder. Its blood vessels become umbilical blood vessels, to take blood to and from fetus.
4b. Yolk Sac: First embryonic membrane to appear. First site of blood cell formation.
5b. Amnion: Enlarges as embryo and then fetus enlarges. Contains fluid to cushion and protect embryo.
C. Stages of Development
1c. Fertilization to Birth
- 280 days = gestation period.
2c. Pre-embryonic development: Events of first week.
- Morula: Compact ball of embryonic cells that become a blastocyst.
- Inner Cell Mass: the cells of the blastocyst arrange themselves so that there is an inner cell mass surrounded by an outer layer of cells. Inner cell mass will become embryo, and the layer of cells will become the chorion.
(Insert Pre-embryonic Development picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 19)
3c. Embryonic Development: Begins with second week and lasts until end of second month of development.
- Second Week: Embryo begins process of implanting itself in the wall of uterus at end of first week.
- At this point, embryo is approx. the size of a period. ( . )
- As week progresses, the inner cell mass becomes the embryonic disk, and two more extraembryonic membranes form. (Yolk sac, and amniotic cavity.) (Mader 354-357)
- Gastrulation: turns inner cell mass into embryonic disk. Example of morphogenesis, when cells move or migrate, in this case to become tissue layers called the primary germ layers.
- By completion of gastrulation, embryonic disk has become an embryo with three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. (Mader 358)
- Fetal “germ layers” destined to become specific adult structures. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 21)
4c. Third Week: Appearance of two organ systems:
- Nervous System
- Heart
5c. Fourth and Fifth Week:
- Body stalk (future umbilical cord) connects embryo to the chorion which has projections called chorionic villi.
- Umbilical cord is formed.
- Limb buds appear.
- Head enlarges.
- Sense organs become more prominent.
- Can make out developing eyes, ears, and nose.
6c. Sixth through Eighth Weeks:
- Form becomes easily recognizable as human.
- Nervous system allows for reflex movement.
- Embryo is approx. 1.5 in long.
- All organ systems are established. (Mader 359)
(Insert Embryo at 8 Weeks Picture / epigee.org / http://epigee.org/pregnancy/methods.html)
4c. Ectopic pregnancy—fertilized egg implants but not in uterine wall. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 19)
- This pregnancy cannot be successful, because oviduct is unable to support it.
III. Fetal Development
A. Carbon dioxide and other wastes move from the fetal side to the maternal side, and nutrients and wastes move from the maternal side to the fetal side of the placenta by diffusion.
B. Path of Fetal Blood: Umbilical vein carries blood rich in nutrients and O2 away from placenta and to fetus.
- Blood is returned to right atrium.
- Mixed blood enters heart.
- All blood entering right atrium by-passes the lungs.
(Mader 361)
(Insert Fetal Blood Circulation Picture / http://www.brainconnection.com/ / http://www.brainconnection.com/topics?main=gal/fetal-circulation)
C. Events of Fetal Development: Months 3-9
1c. Months 3-4
- Beginning of 3rd month, fetal head is still very big relative to the rest of the body.
- Head growth slows, rest of body increases in length.
- Epidermal refinements (fingernails, eyelashes, eyebrows, etc.) appear.
- Cartilage begins to be replaced by bone.
- Fontanels: Six large membranous areas in skull.
- Possible to distinguish sex sometime in 3rd month.
- During 4th month, fetal heartbeat can be heard through stethoscope.
- By the end of this month, fetus is approx. 6 inches long.
(Insert Fetus- 4 Months picture / epigee.org / http://epigee.org/fetal2.html)
2c. Months 5-7
- Mother begins to feel movement.
- Lanugo: Fine down that covers the translucent skin of fetus.
- Vernix Caseosa: Coats lanugo, to protect skin from amniotic fluid.
- Eyelids fully open.
- Approx. 12 inches long.
(Insert Fetus - 7 Months picture / http://answers.yahoo.com/question?qid=1006052905521)
3c. Months 8-9
- By end of 9th month, fetus is approx. 20.5 in.
- Accumulation of fat occurs.
- Breech birth: Baby comes "rump" first.
- C-Section: Birth through incision and extraction. (Mader 363)
D. Development of Male and Female Genitals
1d. Sex of individual is determined at the moment of fertilization: Males have X and Y chromosomes, females have two X chromosomes.
2d. Internal Genitals:
- Gonads develop during 7th week of development.
- At 14 weeks, sperm or tiny follicles in ovaries are already developing.
3d. External Genitals:
- Tissues are indifferent at first.
- By 14 weeks, the "groove" persists if female, disappears int scrotum if male.
4d. Abnormal Development of Genitals:
- Some XY individuals become females, because a piece of the Y chromosome is missing.
- Some XX individuals become males, because the same small piece is present on an X chromosome.
5d. Ambiguous Sex Determination: Individual has external appearance of a female, although the gonads of a female are absent.
- Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome: Testes produces hormones, but individual develops as a female because the plasma membrane receptors for testosterone are ineffective. External genitalia develop as female. (Mader 365)
IV. Pregnancy and Birth
A. Placental Hormones cause the changes in a mother's body during pregnancy.
1a. Energy level fluctuates.
- Nausea, vomiting.
- Loss of appetite.
- Fatigue.
- Weight gain results from all of the following: breast and uterine enlargement, weight of fetus, amount of amniotic fluid, size of placenta, her own increase in body fluids, increase in storage of proteins, fats, and minerals. Can lead to lower back pain.
2a. Uterus relaxes:
- Increase in blood volume.
- Blood flow rises significantly.
- Smooth muscle relaxation.
3a. Pulmonary Values Increase.
- Increased size of uterus.
- Occupies most of abdominal cavity.
- Pushes intestines, liver, stomach, and diaphragm from top, and widens thoracic cavity.
- Blood carbon dioxide levels fall.
4a. Other Effects:
- Compression of ureters and bladder causes frequent passage of urine.
- Stretch marks.
- Possibility of pregnancy-induced diabetes. (Mader 368)
–Bladder, rectum pushed superiorly, squeezed--change in urination, defecation patterns.
–Stomach compressed--eat more often, less at each meal.
–Immune response may change appetite to avoid possible poisons for fetus.
- Postural changes to compensate for anterior weight.
- Breasts enlarge--first milk production. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22)
(Insert Stages of Pregnancy picture / pregnancy.more4kids.info / http://pregnancy.more4kids.info/category/stages-of-pregnancy)
B. Birth:
- Uterus contracts throughout pregnancy.
- Braxton Hicks Contractions: False labor.
- Uterine contractions push fetus downwards, and cervix stretches.
- Parturition: Process of giving birth to an offspring.
- Loss of mucous plug, that during pregnancy, keeps out bacteria and other sperm.
1b. Stage 1: Contractions cause cervical canal to slowly disappear, and lower part of uterus is pulled up toward baby's head, = Effacement.
- Baby's head helps cervical dilation.
- Amniotic membrane ruptures.
2b. Stage 2: Contractions occur every 1-2 mins.
- Desire to push.
- Episiotomy: incision to enlarge opening of vagina, to allow for birth.
- Umbilical cord is cut and tied.
3b. Stage 3: Afterbirth: Placenta is delivered.
(Mader 369)
(Insert Process of Birth picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 23)
V. Development After Birth
A. Stages of life: Infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
1a. Gerontology: Study of aging.
- Human life span maximum: 120-125 years.
2a. Hypotheses of Aging
- Genetic in Origin: Aging has genetic basis.
- Some genes decrease life span. When inactive, the mitochondria do not produce energy, and the cell uses alternative pathways. Defective mitochondria may produce more free radicals than usual. Caloric restriction can shut down the genes that decrease life span.
- Whole-Body Process: Decline in hormonal system can affect many different organs of body.
- Perhaps aging results from loss of hormonal activities and a decline in functions they control.
- Aging may be due to a specific type of tissue change that affects all organs and even the genes.
- Extrinsic Factors: Diet, exercise, cigarette smoking, heavy alcohol intake, inadequate calcium intake, etc.
B. Effect of Age on Body Systems:
1b. Skin: Skin becomes thinner and less elastic because the number of elastic fibers decreases and collagen fibers undergo cross-linking. = sagging and wrinkling.
2b. Processing and Transporting:
- Cardiovascular disorders are leading cause of death today.
- Arteries become more rigid with time.
- Heart shrinks due to reduction in cardiac muscle cell size.
- Blood flow to liver and kidneys is reduced.
- Respiratory disorders.
- Loss of teeth.
3b. Integration and Coordination:
- Reaction time slows.
- Hearing, taste, and smell receptors need more stimulation.
- Lens of eyes do not accommodate as well as before.
- Loss of skeletal muscle mass.
- Decline of bone density.
- Weight gain.
4b. Reproductive System
- Females undergo menopause.
- Males undergo andropause.
(Mader 370-372)

Chapter 16 Compendium Review- Pictures

2008-07-14T18:31:00.000-07:00

Female Genital Herpes

Tubal Ligation

Vasectomy

Intrauterine Device

Effects of Pregnancy

Female Hormone Levels: Non-Pregnant Uterine Cycle

Female Reproductive System

Testis and Sperm

Male Reproductive System

Fertilization

Human Life Cycle

Female Egg

Male Sperm

Chapter 16 Compendum Review

2008-07-14T18:14:00.000-07:00

I. Human Life Cycle
II. Male Reproductive System
III. Female Reproductive System
IV. Female Hormone Levels
V. Control of Reproduction
VI. Sexually Transmitted Diseases

I. Human Life Cycle
A. Reproductive system is fully functional when puberty is complete.
- Girls become sexually mature between ages 11 and 13.
- Boys between ages 14 and 16.
B. Reproductive Organs and their Functions:
- Testes in males produce sperm; Ovaries in females produce eggs.
- Sperm is in ducts until it exits penis; eggs are transported via unterine tubes into uterus.
- Penis delivers sperm to vagina.
- Fertilized egg develops in uterus.
- Testes and ovaries produce sex hormones that maintain the testes and ovaries and bring about maculinization and feminization of various features. In females, sex hormone is necessary to sustain pregnancy. (Mader 320)
(Insert Sperm picture / d21c.com / http://d21c.com/sandysez/nursing?D=D)
(Insert Egg picture / http://www.zmuc.dk/ / http://www.zmuc.dk/InverWeb/Dyr/Limnognathia/reproduction_UK.htm)
C. Events of Human Life Cycle:
- Meiosis
- Fertilization
- Fetal Development
- Birth
- Childhood/Adolescence
- Adulthood (Meiosis)
- Aging
- Death (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4)
(Insert Human Life Cycle Picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4)
D. Mitosis and Meiosis
- Each cell in the body has 46 chromosomes, carrying our DNA.
1d. Duplication Division: Mitosis. When a cell divides, each new cell also has 46 chromosomes.
- Mitosis occurs during growth and repair of tissues.
2d. Reduction Division: Meiosis: Takes place only in testes of males during production of sperm and in the ovaries of females during production of eggs.
- This process reduces the number of chromosomes from 46 (AKA diploid, or 2n number) down to 23 chromosomes (AKA haploid, or n number)
- Occurs in two successive division: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
-Flagellated sperm is much smaller than the egg. It carries the chromosomes to the egg.
- Egg provides the new individual with cytoplasm in addition to chromosomes.
3d. Zygote: The first cell of a new human being.
- The zygote gets 23 chromosomes from the sperm, and 23 from the egg, so it has 46 altogether. (Mader 320)
(Insert Fertilization picture / http://www.talbotcentral.ucr.edu/ /
http://www.talbotcentral.ucr.edu/AAA_03C_research.html)
II. Male Reproductive System
A. The following organs are found in the male reproductive system:
- Testes: Male gonads: Primary Sex organ. Paired testes, suspended from sacs of scrotum.
- Epididymis: Sperm produced by testes mature here. Tightly coiled duct lying just outside each testis.
- Vas Deferens: Mature sperm leave epididymis and enter here, where they are stored for some time. Each Vas Deferens goes into abdominal cavity, where it curves around bladder and empties into ejaculatory duct. (Mader 321)
- There are millions of sperm in a few drops of testicular fluid. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
- Urethra: Place where ejaculatory ducts enter. (Mader 321) Located near base of penis. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
- Prostate Gland: Donut-shaped. Surrounds upper portion of urethra just below bladder.
- Bulbourethral Glands: Pea-sized. Lie posterior to the prostate on either side of urethra. Secretion makes semen "gelatinous".
1a. Semen: The fluid containing sperm in which sperm leaves the penis during ejaculation. (Mader 321)
- Ejaculation: sperm travel from testes, joined by semen, and are expelled through erect penis.
- Semen is made by prostrate, seminal and bulbourethral glands at base of penis. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
(Insert Male Reproductive System picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
- Seminal Vesicles: Lie at base of bladder. Each has a duct that joins with a vas deferens.
- Semen contains prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause the uterus to contract, thus helping propel sperm toward egg. (Mader 321)
B. Orgasm in Males
1b. Penis: Male organ of sexual intercourse.
- Long shaft and enlarged tip called "glans penis".
- Circumcision: Surgical removal of foreskin from glans penis.
- During sexual arousal, autonomic nerves release nitric oxide, which stimulates the production of cGMP, which causes smooth muscle walls to relax and erectile tissue to fill with blood. Veins that take blood away from penis are compressed, = erection.
- Erectile Dysfuntion: Erectile tissue doesn't expand enough to compress the veins.
- Ejaculation: Sperm enter urethra from each vas deferens, glands contribute secretions to seminal fluid, and contractions cuase it to be expelled from penis in spurts. (= male orgasm)
- Refractory period: Length of time during which stimulation does not bring about an erection, usually following ejaculation.
C. Male Gonads, the Testes
1c. Testes: Produce sperm and make male sex hormones. Lie outside abdominal cavity, in scrotum. Necessary to reside in scrotal sacs because body temp is too high internally to produce viable sperm.
- Scrotum helps regulate temp of testes by holding them farther away from body.
2c. Seminiferous Tubules and Interstitial Cells
- Testes composed of lobules: compartments which contain one to three coiled seminiferous tubules, which are packed with cells undergoing spermatogenesis, the production of sperm.
- Sertoli Cells: Support, nourish, and regulate the process of spermatogenesis.
(Mader 322-323)
- In walls of tubules, stem cells that give rise to sperm are constantly undergoing meiosis.
- Sperm are then collected in epididymis.
- Sperm that are not ejaculated are reabsorbed back into testicular tissue. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 7)
(Insert Testis and Sperm picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 7)
3c. Sperm have three parts: a head, a middle piece, and a tail.
- Mitochondria: found in middle piece. Provide energy for movement of tail.
- Tail: Flagellum.
- Head: Contains nucleus covered by cap called acrosome, which stores enzymes needed to penetrate egg.
- Live for approx. 48 hours in female genital tract.
- Only 1 of millions of sperm penetrate egg (normally).
D. Interstitial Cells: Cells that secrete the androgens, or male sex hormones.
E. Hormonal Regulation in Males
1e. Hypothalamus: Ultimate control of testes' sexual function.
- Secretes hormone gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete gonadotropic hormones.
- Two types of gonadotropic hormones: Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (in males, promotes production of sperm in seminiferous tubules), and Luteinizing hormone (LH) (in males, controls production of testosterone by interstitial cells).
- All hormones are involved in negative feedback relationship that provides a continuous production of sperm and testosterone.
2e. Testosterone: Main sex hormone in males. Essential for development and functin of sex organs. Brins about and maintians male secondary sex characteristics present during puberty. (Hair on face, etc.)
III. Female Reproductive System
A. Female gonads are paired ovaries, found on either side of the upper pelvic cavity.
- Produce eggs and the female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone.
B. Genital Tract:
1b. Oviducts: (AKA fallopian tubes): EXtend from uterus to ovaries, but are not attached to ovaries.
- Fimbriae: Finger-like projections extending from oviducts that sweep over ovaries and carry them into an oviduct with the help of beating cilia that line oviducts. Moves toward uterus.
- Egg lives approx. 6-24 hours, unless fertilization occurs.
- Fertilization takes place in oviduct.
- Implantation: Embryo moves from oviduct to uterus and embeds in uterine lining.
2b. Uterus: Thick-walled, muscular organ. Lies above and tipped over urinary bladder. Oviducts join uterus at upper end, cervix enters vagina at lower end.
- Development of embryo / fetus occurs here.
- Endometrium: Lining of uterus. Helps form placenta, shich supplies nutrients for embryo / fetus.
3b. Vagina: Tube. Serves as birth canal, facilitates sexual intercourse, and acts as exit for menstrual flow.
(Insert Female Reproductive System picture / http://www.faqs.org/ / http://www.faqs.org/health/Body-by-Design-V2/The-Reproductive-System.html)
- Pap test: tests for cancer of cervix by removing cells from cervix for microscopic examination.
- Hysterectomy: Removal of uterus, including cervix. (Mader 325)
C. External Genitals: The Vulva
- Labia majora
- Labia minora: Cleft between labie minora contains openings of urethra and vagina.
- Glans clitoris: organ of sexual arousal. Contains shaft of erectile tissue.
D. Orgasm in Females
1d. Labia minora becomes engorged with blood. Blood vessels in vaginal wall release drops of fluid for lubrication. Clitoris is stimulated, and orgasm occurs when walls of uterus contract. (Mader 326)
IV. Female Hormone Levels
A. Ovarian Cycle: Nonpregnant
1a. Ovary contains multiple follicles, and each follicle contains an immature egg, called an oocyte.
- Female produces 1 egg per month.
- Ovarian Cycle: Follicle matures.
- Oocyte develops into a corpus luteium, a glnadlike structure.
- Oogenesis: Primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I. (Mader 326)
- Meiosis occurs in ovaries.
- Phase I occurs in fetal ovary.
- One egg per month (ovulation part of menstrual cycle) matures and bursts from wall of ovary to be taken up into Fallopian tube.
- Phase II of meiosis occurs the moment the egg is fertilized (if that happens). (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 10)
- Primary follicle: produces estrogen.
- Secondary follicle: produces estrogen and some progesterone.
2a. Phases of Ovarian Cycle:
- Hypothalamus: Controls the sexual function of ovaries.
- Secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the production of FSH and LH, which control ovarian cycle.
- Positive Feedback Effect: Estrogen spike causes secretion of large amount of GnRH from hypothalamus, which leads to a surge of LH, which leads to ovulation.
- Luteal Phase: LH promotes development of corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone.
B. Estrogen and Progesterone:
- Affect uterus, etc.
- Estrogen: Responsible for secondary sex characteristics (breast development, etc.)
- Menopause: Ovarian cycle ceases, between ages 45-55.
C. Uterine Cycle: Non-pregnant:
1c. Uterine Cycle:
- Low level of estrogen and progesterone in body causes endometrium to disintegragte and its blood vessels to rupture. = menstruation (days 1-5)
- Increased production of etrogen causes endometrium to thicken. (days 6-13)
- Ovulation occurs. (day 14)
- Increased production of progesterone in ovary causes endometrium of uterus to double or triple in thickness. Thick mucoid secretion, prepared to receive embryo. (days 15-28). If no embryo is received, corpus luteum regresses, and low level of sex hormones result in endometrium breaking down for menstruation. (Mader 328-329)
(Insert Female Hormone Levels picture/ Frolich PowerPoint Slide 11)
D. Fertilization and Pregnancy:
1d. Placenta: Sustains devedloping embryo and fetus, comes from both maternal and fetal tissues.
- Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which maintains corpus luteum in ovary.
- Rising amounts of HCG stimulates corpus luteum to produce progesterone, which shuts down hypothalamus so no new follicles begin in ovary.
- Progesterone maintains uterine lining for embryo.
- Eventually, the placenta itself takes over production of progesterone and some estrogen, so corpus luteum is no longer needed and it regresses. (Mader 330)
(Insert Effect of Pregnancy picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 12)
V. Control of Reproduction:
A. Birth Control
- Abstinence
- The pill
- Intrauterine device
(Insert Intrauterine Device picture / http://www.fiu.edu/ / http://www.fiu.edu/~srose/abortioncontracep.html)
- Hormone skin patch
- Depo-Provera
- Diaphragm and spermicidal jelly
- Condoms (male and female)
- Implants (Mader 331)
B. Vasectomy and Tubal Ligation:
1b. Sterilization.
- Vasectomy: Cuts and seals the vas deferens on each side so the sperm are unable to reach the seminal fluid, and are reabsorbed.
(Insert Vasectomy picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 8)
- Tubal Ligation: Cuts and seals the oviducts, so the passage of egg is blocked.
(Insert Tubal Ligation picture / http://www.mala.bc.ca/ / http://www.mala.bc.ca/incline/tubals.html)
C. Morning-After Pills
- "Emergency Contraception": Medication upsets normal uterine cycle, so an embryo can't implant itself. Causes loss of unimplanted or implanted embryos.
D. Infertility: Failure of a couple to achieve pregnancy after one year of regular, unprotected intercourse.
- Consitutes approx. 15% of american couples.
1d. Some causes:
- Low sperm count. (Associated with smoking and drinking.)
- Body weight in females causes failure to ovulate.
- Blocked oviducts due to pelvic inflammatory disease and endometriosis.
E. Assisted Reproductive Technologies:
- Artificial Insemination by Donor
- In Vitro Ferilization
- Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (Egg and Sperm placed in oviducts immediately after they are brought together, whereas in In Vitro, eggs are brought to maturity in glassware, sperm are added, and after about 2-4 days, implanted in woman.)
- Surrogacy
- Intracytoplasmic Spermm Injection: single sperm injected in egg. (Mader 334)
VI. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
A. Caused by viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals.
1a. STD's caused by Viruses:
- Drugs used fro treatment of these STDs only slows replication of virus: does not cure.
2a. HIV Infections: AIDS is last stage of an HIV infection.
- Approx. 38.6 million affected worldwide.
- Approx. 25 million have died.
- Helper T lymphocyte: primary host for HIV. These are the same cells that stimulate immune response, and the immune system becomes severely impaired.
- Highly contagious in first stage. Minimal symptoms.
- Helper T lymphocyte count eventually falls, and the person becomes susceptible to all kinds of illnesses.
- Persons usually die from an opportunistic disease, such as pneumonia.
3a. Genital Warts:
- Caused by human papillomaviruses.
- Warts are seen on penis and foreskin of men and near vaginal opeining in women.
- New vaccine is now available.
4a. Genital Herpes:
- Caused by herpes simplex virus.
- Type 1- Cold sores and fever blisters.
- Type 2- Genital Herpes.
- Tingling / itching sensation. Blisters on genitals, which rupture and leave blisters. Increased risk of acquiring HIV.
- Symptoms are recurrent.
(Insert Genital Herpes picture / http://www.femail.com.au/)
5a. Hepatitis:
- Infects liver, and can lead to liver failure, liver cancer, and death.
- Six Viruses, labeled: A, B, C, D, E, and G.
- A & E are usually from contiminated water! (Mader 336-337)
- Hep B: most commonly sexually transmitted hepatitis.
- Transmitted through sexual contact and by contaminated blood.
- Vaccine available for both Hep A and B. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 15)
B. STDs Caused by Bacteria:
- Curable with antibiotics.
1b. Chlamydia: Caused by tiny bacterium.
- Usually mild or asymptomatic.
- Increases risk of HIV.
- If untreated, infection can spread from cervix to uterine tubes, resulting in pelvic inflammatory disease. Very painful. Causes infertility.
2b. Gonorrhea:
- Latent infection leasds to pelvic inflammatory disease, which can cause sterility in males.
- Gonorrhea proctitis: infection of anus.
- Gonorrhea can spread to internal parts of body, causing heart damage or arthritis.
- Now showing resistance to antibiotics.
3b. Syphilis:
- Treated w/ penicillin.
- Three stages: Primary- hard chancre (ulcerated sore with hard edges) indicates site of infection. Second Stage- Rash occurs even on palms and soles of feet. Hair loss, gray patches on mucous membranes may occur. Tertiary Stage- Lasts until patient dies. Affects cardiovascular system by causing aneurysms, particularly in aorta. Can also affect nervous system, causing psychological disturbances. Also, gummas, large ulcers, may develop on skin or within internal organs.
- Congenital Syphilis: bacteria passees into placenta and child is born blind or with many malformations. (Mader 338)
4b. Other Common Infections of Reproductive Tract:
* Bacterial vaginosis (BV):
–Accounts for ~ 50% of vaginitis in American women.
–Caused by a disruption of the normal flora in the vagina leading to an overgrowth of certain bacteria.
* Trichomoniasis
–Caused by a protozoan.
–Can cause a frothy discharge, with a foul smell and itching.
–Common cause of vaginitis.
* Candidiasis
–An overgrowth of normal yeast (fungus called Candida) in the vagina.
–Characterized by tissue that is red, inflammed and itchy; sometimes a white, curdy discharge as well.
–Birth control hormones and use of antibiotics make women more prone to this overgrowth.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 16)
C. Prevention of STDs
• Abstinence.
• Develop long-term monogamous relationships.
• Be aware if your partner is an intravenous drug user because prevalence of STDs are higher in that group.
• Practice safer sex.
– Always use a latex condom during intercourse.
–Limit or do not use alcohol and drugs that can impair your judgment or change your behavior. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 17)

Build A Limb Lab

2008-07-09T11:17:00.000-07:00

Once again, because of the blog, the pictures are in "reverse" order. First picture is at bottom... then works it's way up. :)

Neurons- and Schwann Cell (Sorry, this was placed out of order by the blog... should come right above the first picture of the Neuron in Progress...)

Release of Calcium from Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, and it's Binding to Myosin.

Sarcomeres- Contracted

Muscle Cell w/ Labeled Parts: Sarcolemma, T-tubules, Sarcomere, Myosin Cross-Bridges, etc.

Muscle Cell- in progress

Action Potential Ends / Repolarization

Action Potential Begins

Movement of Charged Sodium and Potassium Ions Across Membrane:
Resting Potential

Propagation of Action Potential Along Axon

Neuron- In Progress

Emma's "Knee"- She was so proud. :)

Extended Knee: Quadricep Contracted

Bent Knee: Hamstring Contracted

Finished Knee: Tendons "peeled back" to see all labeled parts.

Finished Knee: Outside Labeled

Process: Building the Knee

My Materials: We always have a stockpile of play-do in our house. :)
1. Introduction: My assignment for this lab was to create a moving limb with neuron triggering muscle to pull on bone and make a joint move. I chose to make a model of the knee. The parts of the knee that I included in my model are as follows: Both the quadricep and hamstring muscles, that contribute to contracting the knee, fat, bursa, patella, artiulcar cartilage, patellar tendon, tibia, fibula, meniscus, synovial fluid, synovial membrane, and femur.
- The quadriceps and hamstring muscles move the knee joint.
- The femur (thigh bone), tibia (shin bone), and patella (knee cap) make up the knee joint.
- Meniscus: Covers the end of the bones and acts as "cushion". Helps absorb shock and allows the knee joint to move smoothly.
- Bursa: Fluid-filled sac that facilitates movement and reduces friction.
- Patella: the knee-cap. Triangular-shaped, covers and protects knee joint. Articulates with femur.
- Patellar Tendon: Attaches quad muscle to tibia.
- Articular Cartilage: Covers the ends of bones. It has a smooth, slippery surface, which allows the bones of the knee joint to slide over each other without rubbing.
- Synovial Fluid: Lubricates joints.
- Synovial Membrane: Secretes synovial fluid.
2. List of Limb Parts and Their Model Representations: I chose to use different colors of play-do for each part of the knee. They are labeled on the diagram itself, but I will list them here, as well.
- Quadricep and Hamstring Muscles: Red
- Bursa: Green
- Fat: Yellow
- Patella: Greenish "Mixed"
- Tibia: Light Yellow
- Femur and Fibula: White
- Tendons: Purple
- Synovial Fluid: Brown
- Meniscus: Pink
- Articular Cartilage: Orange
* I also built a sensory, inter, and motor nueron to show the propagation of action potential along an axon, a separate model demonstrating action potential, a skeletal muscle cell, the release of calcium from a sarcoplasmic reticulum and calcium binding to myosin.
3. The Models: Please see above pictures with corresponding captions.
4. Conclusion: Our bones are moved by muscle contractions. The way that a muscle contracts is as follows: A sensory neuron takes nerve impulses (action potential) from a sensory receptor to the Central Nervous System. An interneuron in the CNS receives the input from sensory neurons and from other interneurons, sums up the impulses, and communicates them to motor neurons. The motor neuron (whose axons are in the nerves) takes nerve impulses away from the CNS to an effector, in this case, the muscle fiber. When nerve impulses arrive at an axon terminal, the synaptic vesicles release ACh into the synaptic cleft. When ACh is released, it diffuses across the cleft and binds to receptors in the sarcolemma. Next, the sarcolemma generates impulses that spread over the sarcolemma and down T-tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum leads to sarcomere contraction. A single muscle fiber (cell) has many myofibrils that are each divided into sarcomeres, which contract. When the myofibrils of a muscle fiber contract, the sarcomeres shorten. The actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments toward the center, and the muscle pulls on the bone to move it.

Exercise Essay

2008-07-06T18:11:00.000-07:00

Exercise improves muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility. It also improves cardiorespiratory endurance. It helps prevent the buildup of plague in blood vessels, thereby fighting heart disease. Exercise has even been shown to help prevent certain types of cancer! A person can increase their bone strength, as well, with certain types of exercising, such as weight training. Obviously, exercise also helps a person to lose weight and maintain a healthy weight once it has been established. Emotionally, exercise can help relieve depression and create a stronger self-image. Vigorous exercise releases endorphins, known to alleviate pain and create a feeling of tranquility. These are all great reasons people should make exercise a part of their daily routine. So, then, why don't they?
In the Essay on Obesity and the Environment, there are many good points made regarding the how and why our current environment facilitates the lack of exercise our modern-day lives have become accustomed to. We have so many conveniences these days that allow us a "better quality of life." In most towns today, there are several choices of fast food that is cheap and readily available to the consumer. What kind of fast food? High calorie, high fat, bad-for-you food. Hamburgers, fried chicken, tacos loaded up with sour cream, cheese, etc., all available in "super-size." Funny how you don't see a fast food restaurant dedicated to salads, or tofu wraps. Why? Would Americans choose these healthier alternatives if they were available? I'm not sure, generally speaking, but I am sure that my husband and children would prefer McDonald's any day. :) I know it's a terrible thing to admit, but if we are being honest, those bad-for-you foods are tastier and more appealing to most people than a tofu wrap. I think it would be ideal if we could find a happy medium, somehow. For example, a fast food restaurant that specialized in healthy, yummy pitas would probably have a fairly decent response. I know I would choose that kind of food over McDonald's, for sure. But really, there are none. Perhaps business owners fear that consumers would not make the healthy choice, and they would therefore not make the money they desire. This is understandable, and the basis of this essay. People want what tastes good, not necessarily what is better for them health-wise. And this is why we face the problems we face today in regards to obesity.
Technology inhibits exercise. I'm sure people were much healthier before they could drive everywhere, when walking was commonplace. No one walks anymore. Some of this is due to location: it is not really feasible to walk from Chino Valley to Prescott for work. Most of it is convenience-based, going back to the idea of the "better quality of life". Meaning, why walk when you can drive? I've seen people on my street drive to the mailboxes that are very much in walking distance. This, to me, says a great deal about what people value these days, and that is convenience. Technology has made it so that many of us have virtually no physical labor required of us in our daily lives. Thus, exercise becomes a choice.
It is true that exercise makes you feel better and gives you more energy. So why don't we all do it on a daily basis? Some would say lack of energy. :) This is a repetitive, somewhat amusing cycle: if we exercised, we'd have more energy, yet we can't seem to force ourselves to exercise. Personally, this goes back to many of the same issues I wrote about in the Nutrition essay. I hate to sound so cliche, but I fall back on my lack of time excuse. (Yes, I know, it is an excuse.) But when you work, take care of your children, and try to maintain your home on a daily basis, it is difficult to find time for everything. What gets cut out of my priorities most often? Exercise. Perhaps because, if I finally do have any time to myself, it is spent doing things for others. I have often thought how great it would be to go take a Yoga class at the YMCA, but I then immediately remind myself of the fact that gas is ridiculously expensive, and I can't afford to drive into Prescott just to take a class. So, why not get a Yoga video and do it at home? I've bought it: just don't find the time to do it everyday. Could I wake up earlier in the morning, before the kids, and do it then? Maybe... if I could keep my eyes open after being woken up 4 times in the middle of the night by two children. But realistically, I know I could find that time, if it was something I truly cared about and made a top priority. Unfortunately, it isn't. This is also cyclical, for me. I have serious body-issues, and am fully aware that the only way to change this and make myself happier is to kick myself in the butt and exercise, regularly. Yet I still don't do it. ???
Scotland has found ways to promote a healthier lifestyle. One example is their aim to put across health messages by promoting active travel behaviour through cycling and walking initiatives. I think this is great, and kind of goes hand in hand with the suggestion of another article for workplaces to incorporate at least 15-30 minutes a day into their employees work schedule to allow for an exercise period. This reminds me of when I was teaching in Prescott, and they began a program that included getting meters for those interested to keep track of how many steps they took per day. A group of teachers would spend their lunch hour (half-hour) walking around the track. It seemed really fun, but to be honest, most of them were gym teachers. Teachers of core classes rarely found the time to eat lunch, because they were tutoring kids, grading papers, attending meetings, returning phonecalls, etc. That's the problem with it being a lunch hour. However, if there had been actually scheduled time aside from lunch, I bet more people would have participated. Then again, I bet many wouldn't, and the administration would therefore have allotted time for us that wasn't being used for its intention. And the excuses continue! ;)
I think that, in many ways, we are taking steps in the right direction. For example, even when I was in high school, they did away with all of the vending machines and were making better, healthier food choices for what they offered their students. It seems that many schools are following this path, along with educating the students as to the benefits of exercise, etc. Starting young is really key, I think. If you begin at a young age, it is very natural for kids to make good choices as they become adults, instead of trying to undo "bad" behavior and learn to make better choices. Physical activity (not strenuous exercise) should be stressed, as well, for those who are completely opposed to "hard" exercising everyday. Although our daily lifestyles are always busy and fast-paced, many people would benefit from (and more than likely enjoy) a 30-minute walk as many days per week as they can manage. This, I do, and as I said, that's 30 minutes of peace and quiet that I truly appreciate.
I don't think it's realistic to think that people would be willing to give up their cars to improve our lifestyle to become more healthy. I know I wouldn't... so what are the answers? As I said before in the Nutrition essay, it all comes down to personal choice and priorities. It would be nice if our community helped in our choices, but they can only do so much. Perhaps if our society wasn't so motivated by money, our lives wouldn't be so fast-paced and busy all the time, and we would have more time to allot for what should be most important: the health of our bodies.

Muscle Function Lab

2008-07-06T14:20:00.000-07:00

Contracting Muscle

Rubber Ball

Submerging my Hand in Icewater

Muscle Contraction Cycle http://people.emich.edu/pbogle/PHED_200/outlines/chapter_08/outline.htm

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction

http://courses.cm.utexas.edu/jrobertus/ch339k/overheads-1.htm)

Muscle Function Lab

Introduction: This lab is designed to show a person how his / her muscles react to environmental changes, such as temperature, and fatigue. It is important to understand the basic function of our muscles for many reasons, including understanding how to exercise effectively, and how our bodies and muscles react to environmental changes. Here, we will test how our muscles contract normally, and how these contractions change when introduced to other circumstances, such as fatigue from overuse and drastic temperature changes.

1. Muscle Action: Place your fingers along the angle of your jaw just in front of your ear. Grit your teeth and observe what happens to the hardness of the
muscles in your cheek.
They become hard.

2. With the thumb and little finger of one hand, span the opposite arm's
biceps (front muscle of the upper arm) from the elbow to as close to the
shoulder as possible. Bend the arm and observe the change in the length of
the muscle. It shortens / contracts.

3. Wrap a strip of paper around your upper arm and mark the circumference
of your arm on the paper. Clench your fist tightly and mark the new
circumference on the paper. Observe what happens to the circumference of
the muscle. Increases.

Effect of Temperature on Muscle Action

1. Count the number of times you can make a fist in 20 seconds. Start with
your hand completely outstretched and make a tight fist each time. Do it
as rapidly as you can. Record the count: 24.

2. Now submerge your hand in a dishpan of water to which has been added
snow or ice so that the temperature is near the freezing point. Leave your
hand in the water for one full minute.

3. Remove your hand and immediately count how many forceful fists you can
make in 20 seconds. Record in Figure 1.
Number of Fists “Normal”: 24
Number of Fists “Ice Water”: 20

4. Effect of Fatigue on Muscle Action

1. Count how many times you can tightly squeeze a rubber ball in your hand
in 20 seconds. Record figure: 45

2. Repeat the squeezing nine more times and record results. Do not rest
between trials.

Number of rubber ball squeezes in 20 seconds / 10 Repetitions

1st: 45
2nd: 45
3rd: 44
4th: 43
5th: 44
6th: 44
7th: 41
8th: 41
9th: 40
10th: 39

ANALYSIS OF DATA:

1. What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working (contracted)?
A. When you flex a muscle, it becomes larger and / or harder.
B. Your body temperature directly affects the ability of the muscle to perform: when the muscle is submerged in ice water, (and you get over the physical pain), :) the muscle is unable to perform as efficiently and as much as it could at normal temperature.
C. When you use a muscle repeatedly in a period of time, it becomes fatigued, and is unable to perform as efficiently and as much as it could at rest.
2. What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.
- First, I was very surprised at the amount of pain that was involved in holding my hand in ice water for a full minute. I kept wanting to take it out of the water! But I held it in, and I felt the “pins and needles” pain go up my arm! (Sensory neurons!) :) After I took it out and repeated the exercise of fist clenching, I found that it was much more difficult to make the fist than it was before, and it occurred at a much slower rate. (I was only able to make 20 fists as opposed to 24) 3. (Graph)
4. What effect did fatigue have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain. Fatigue makes your muscles tired. A tired muscle cannot perform as well or do as many repetitions as it can when it is rested. The first time I squeezed the ball in 20 seconds, when my muscle was rested, I squeezed it 45 times. That number gradually dropped as I continued the repetitions. By the tenth repetition, I could only squeeze it 39 times.

* Conclusion:
Muscles contract and break down ATP for the energy they need. When this happens, heat is released throughout the body. When you submerge your hand in ice water, it becomes harder to contract your muscles. This must mean that ATP does not break down well in a cold environment, so it is harder to contract your muscles, and therefore harder to spread heat throughout your body. Muscle contractions keep blood moving, so when you contract them less, there is less blood flow, also making it harder to contract the muscle.

When the nervous system stimulates a muscle, sarcolemma (the cell's plasma membrane) forms T tubules that penetrate, or dip down into, the cell so that they come into contact but do not fuse with expanded portions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. These expanded portions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum are calcium storage sites, and calcium is essential for muscle contraction, so it is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Myofibrils, found in the sarcoplasmic reticulum are the contractile portions of the muscle fibers. Motor neurons stimulate the muscle fibers to contract, as the sarcomeres in the myofibrils shorten. Muscle relaxes when Ca2+ returns to sarcoplasmic reticulum. During the 10 repetitions of squeezing the ball, we were specifically told not to rest between the repetitions, so calcium did not have a chance to return to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Therefore, the amount of calcium that is released becomes less because you are using it faster than it is being replenished. It seems that when you repeat this process several times, the muscle slows down. Perhaps the motor nuerons cannot act as quickly so the impulse travels more slowly. When submerged in ice water, perhaps the actin-myosin units (sarcomeres) take longer to shorten, and therefore longer to contract.

Compendium Review Chapter 12 Pictures

2008-07-06T09:53:00.000-07:00

Bone Marrow

Muscular Dystrophy in Human

Muscular Dystrophy Stem Cells in Mice

Tendinitis

Fast- Twitch Muscle Fibers

Muscle Contraction Requires Energy: 3 Ways

Compendium Review Chapter 12 (Cont'd)

2008-07-06T09:38:00.001-07:00

IV. Whole Muscle Contraction, Cont'd.
V. Muscular Disorders
VI. Homeostasis

IV. Whole Muscle Contraction, Cont'd.
2. Fermentation: Produces 2 ATP from the breakdown of glucose to lactate anaerobically.
- Most likely to begin with glycogen.
- Hormones signal muscle cells to break down glycogen, making glucose available.
- Fast-acting, but results in buildup of lactate, which produces short-term muscle aches and fatigue upon exercising.
- Oxygen-debt: Continuous intake of oxygen. Required to complete the metabolism of lactate and bring cells back to their original energy state.
- Lactate is brought to liver, and 20% is broken down into carbon dioxide and water.
- ATP is gained, and then it reconverts 80% of lactate to glucose and glycogen.
3. Cellular Respiration:
- Myoglobin: molecule that combines with ans stores oxygen.
- Makes use of glucose from the breakdown of glycogen stored in muscle, blood, and fatty acids. (Mader 237)
(Insert Muscle Contraction Requires Energy picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 11)
D. Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
1d. All muscle fibers metabolize both aerobically and anaerobically.
2d. Fast-Twitch fibers: Usually rely on creatine phophate pathway and fermentation, which are anaerobic (no oxygen required).
- Designed for strength because their motor units have many fibers.
- Provide explosions of energy.
- Light in color / fewer mitochondria, little or not myoglobin, and fewer blood vessels than Slow-Twitch fibers.
- Maximum tension is greater.
- Vulnerable to accumulation of lactate.
(Insert Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers picture / www.muscleandstrength.com / http://www.muscleandstrength.com/articles/muscle-and-muscle-fibers.html)
3d. Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers: Prefer Cellular Respiration (aerobic).
- Steadier tug, more endurance.
- Tire only when fuel supply is gone.
- Many mitochondria, dark in color, because of myoglobin (Respiratory pigment found in muscles.)
- Surrounded by thick capillary beds, draw more blood and oxygen.
- Low maximum tension.
- Highly resistant to fatigue.
- A high reserve of glycogen and fat, so mitochondria can keep a steady prolonged production of ATP as long as oxygen is available.
E. Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness:
- Due to tissue injury.
- Happens when muscles contract while lengthening. (Mader 239)
V. Muscular Disorders: Common VS Serious.
A. Common:
1a. Spasms: Sudden, involuntary muscular contractions usually accompanied by pain. (Smooth and Skeletal.)
2a. Convulsion: Multiple spasms.
3a. Cramps: Strong, painful spasms, usually due to strenuous activities.
4a. Facial Tics: Spasms controlled voluntarily, but with great effort. (ie, periodic eye blinking.)
5a. Tendinitis: Normal, smooth gliding motion of tendon is impaired, tendon is inflamed, and movement of joint becomes painful.
- Mostly caused by overuse.
(Insert Tendinitis picture / www.ktvu.com / http://www.ktvu.com/encyclopedia/6867816/detail.html)
6a. Bursitis: An inflammation of the bursa, which provides a smooth, slippery surface where muscles and tendons glide over bones.
- Results from repetitive movement or from prolonged and excessive pressure.
B. Muscular Diseases: More serious, requiring medical care.
1b. Myalgia: Achy muscles.
- Most common cause is either overuse or overstretching.
2b. Fibromyalgia: Chronic condition.
- Symptoms: achy pain, tenderness, and stiffness of muscles.
3b. Muscular Dystrophy: A group of disorders characterized by a progressive degeneration and weakening of muscles.
- As muscle fibers die, fat and connective tissue take their place.
- Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: Most common.
- Inherited through flawed gene carried by mother.
- Caused by protein dystrophin.
(Insert Muscular Dystrophy Stem Cells in Mice picture / www.dogflu.ca / http://www.dogflu.ca/health/news?from=630)
(Insert Muscular Dystrophy in Human picture / www.dinf.ne.jp / http://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/global/david/dwe002/dwe00212.htm)
4b. Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune disease characterized by weakness in muscles of eyelids, face, neck and extremities.
5b. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: (Lou Gehrig's disease).
- Gradual loss of ability to walk, talk, chew, and swallow.
- Mental abilities and sensations are not affected. (Mader 240)
VI. Homeostasis
A. Both the muscular and skeletal systems contribute to homeostasis.
B. Both Systems Produce Movement.
- Body movements allow us to respond to certain types of changes in environment: (ie moving into shade when you are hot.)
- Other movements, like the skeletal muscles allowing the jaw and tongue to move, are necessary for supplying body's cells with nutrients.
C. Both Systems Protect Body Parts.
- Skeletal protects soft internal organs.
- Muscular pads bones, offering protection for abdominal organs.
D. Both Store and Release Calcium:
- Calcium is essential for muscle contraction and nerve conduction.
- Necessary for regulation of cellular metabolism.
- Skeleton is a reservoir for storing calcium.
E. Blood Cells are Produced in Bones:
- Red bone marrow is the site of blood cell production. They also carry oxygen in blood.
- White blood cells originate in red bone marrow, and are necessary to defend your body.
- Bones contain yellow and red bone marrow. Fat is stored in yellow.
(Insert Bone Marrow picture / www.drstandley.com / http://www.drstandley.com/bodysystems_skeletal.shtml)
F. Muscles Help Maintain Body Temperature:
1f. When you are cold, smooth muscles in blood vessels that supply your skin constrict, reducing amount of blood that is close to surface of body. Conserves heat.
2f. Skeletal muscle contraction requires ATP, and using ATP generates heat.

Compendium Review Chapter 12

2008-07-05T21:22:00.000-07:00

(Smooth Muscle) Should be at bottom.

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure and Functions
(Should be placed two pics down... oops!)

Neuromuscular Junction

Mechanism of Muscle Control

Parts of Muscle Cell

Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal Muscles Work in Pairs

Skeletal Muscle

Cardiac Muscle

I. Overview of the Muscular System
II. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction
III. Whole Muscle Contraction

I. Overview of the Muscular System
A. All muscles contract, and when they do, some part of the body moves.
B. Types of Muscles: Three types. Cells of these tissues are called muscle fibers.
1b. Smooth Muscle: These fibers are spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus.
- Usually arranged in parallel lines, forming sheets.
- No striations.
- Found in walls of hollow internal organs, and it makes these walls contract.
- Contraction is involuntary.
- Slower to contract than skeletal muscle, but can sustain prolonged contractions and does not tire easily.
(Insert Smooth Muscle picture / http://www.east-haven.k12.ct.us/ / http://www.east-haven.k12.ct.us/eha/grade6/system6/smoothcardiacmusclekc/indexkc.htm)
2b. Cardiac Muscle: Forms heart walls.
- Fibers are generically without nuclues, striated, tubular, and branched.
- Branching allows fibers to interlock at intercalated disks.
- Plasma membranes at intercalated disks have gap junctions allowing contractions to spread quickly throughout wall of heart.
- Fibers relax completely between contractions.
- Involuntary contractions.
(Insert Cardiac Muscle picture / http://www.east-haven.k12.ct.us/ / http://www.east-haven.k12.ct.us/eha/grade6/system6/smoothcardiacmusclekc/indexkc.htm)
3b. Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscles that attach to the skeleton.
- Fibers are tubular, multinucleated, and striated.
- Run the length of the muscle and can be very long.
- Voluntary: we decide when to move a particular body part, like arms and legs.
- Contraction causes movement of bones at joint.
(Insert Skeletal Muscle picture / oregonstate.edu / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S020qgTXBIJTIB1K6jzbkF/SIG=1367v0nr2/EXP=1215405856/**http%3A//oregonstate.edu/~peila/Pharmstuff/Projector%2520Slides/Projector%2520Slides"
C. Functions of Skeletal Muscles
1c. Support the body. Allows us to remain upright.
2c. Make bones move: Contractions move arms, legs, eyes, facial expressions, and breathing.
- Rigor Mortis: Muscle contractions at death.
3c. Help maintain a constant body temp.
- Muscle contractions causes ATP to break down, releasing heat to spread throughout the body.
3c. Assists movement in cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels.
- Pressure of contraction keeps blood moving in cardiovascular veins and lymph moving in lymphatic vessles.
4c. Help protect internal organs and stabilize joints- Muscles pad bones.
- Muscular wall in abdominal region protects internal organs.
- Muscle tendons help hold bones and joints together.
D. Skeletal Muscles of Body:
- Humans are vertebrates: skeletal muscles lie outside an internal skeleton that has jointed appendages.
1d. Basic Structure of Skeletal Muscles:
- Well-orgnized.
- Contains fascicles: Bundles of skeletal muscle fibers in whole muscle.
- Each fascicle is surrounded by connective tissue, and so are the fibers within the fascicles.
- Fascia: Covers muscles. Type of connective tissue that extends beyond the muscle and becomes a tendon.
2d. Work in pairs:
- Origin of a muscle is on a stationary bone, and the insertion of a muscle is on a bone that moves.
- Muscle contracts, it pulls on tendons at its insertion, and bone moves.
- Function in groups. So, nervous system stimulates a group of muscles, not a single.
- However, one muscle does most of work and is called a prime mover.
- Synergists: Muscles that assist the prime mover.
- Muscles shorten when they contract. They can only pull, not push.
- So, they work in opposite pairs. Antagonist: the muscle that acts opposite to a prime mover.
- Smooth muscle movements depend on an antagonist relaxing when a prime mover contracts. (Mader 228-229)
(Insert Skeletal Muscle Work in Pairs picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 11)
E. Names and Actions of Skeletal Muscles:
1e. Names of Skeletal Muscles are often cominations of the following terms:
- Size: Minimus, Maximus, Vastus (huge), Longus, and Brevis (short).
- Shape: Deltoid, Trapezius, Latissimus (wide), and Terres (round).
- Location: External, Internal, Frontalis, Pectoralis (chest), Gluteus (buttock), Brachii (arm), and Sub (beneath).
- Direction of Muscle Fibers: Rectus (straight), Orbicularis (circular), Transverse ( across), and Oblique (diagonal).
- Attachment: Where and / or to what the muscle attaches. Ex. Brachioradialis: Attached to the brachium (arm) and the radius.
- Number of Attachments: Ex. Biceps (two attachments), or origi- Action: Ex. Extensor digitorum extends the fingers. Adduction- movement of a body part toward the midline. Other terms: Flexor, Masseter (chew), and levator (lift). (Mader 230-231)
(Insert Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles picture / http://www.doereport.com/ / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S0207GV3BIQBQACPGjzbkF/SIG=12aro790h/EXP=1215408454/**http%3A//www.doereport.com/generateexhibit.php%3FID=8106 )
II. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction
A. Muscle Fibers and How They Slide
- "Muscle cells are large—visible with naked eye as “fibers of meat/chicken/fish". (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 5)
1a. Muscle Fiber: Cell containing the usual cellular components, with different names given to some of the combonents.
- Sarcolemma: Plasma Membrane.
- Sarcoplasm: Cytoplasm.
- Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum.
(Insert Parts of Muscle Cell picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
2a. Unique Anatomical Characteristics:
- T (for transverse) System: Sarcolemma forms T tubules that penetrate, or dip down into, the cell so that they come into contact but do not fuse with expanded portions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- These expanded portions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum are calcium storage sites, and calcium is essentail for muscle contraction.
3a. Myofibrils: Hundreds and sometimes thousands of these, found in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, are the contractile portions of the muscle fibers.
- All other organelles are found in the sarcoplasm between the myofibrils.
- Sarcoplasm also contains glycogen, which provides stored energy for muscle contraction.
- Also contains red pigment myoglobin, which binds oxygen until it is needed for muscle contraction.
B. Myofibrils and Sarcomeres:
1b. Myofibrils: Cylindrical. Along the length of muscle fiber.
- Striations: light and dark bands, formed by placement of myofilaments within myofibrils called sarcomeres.
2b. Sarcomeres: Extends between two dark lines called Z lines.
- Contains two types of protein myofilaments.
- Thick filaments: Composed of a protein called Myosin.
- Thin filaments: Composed of a protein called Actin.
C. Myofilaments: The thick and thin filaments differ in the following ways:
1c. Thick Filaments: Composed of several hundred molecules of protein myosin.
- Myosin molecules are shaped like golf clubs. "Head" is called "Crossbridge", which occurs on each side of a sarcomere but not the middle.
2c. Thin Filaments: Made up of two intertwining strands of the protein actin.
- Tropomyosin and Troponin are two other proteins involved.
3c. Sliding Filaments:
- Muscles are stimulated, impulses travel down a T tubule, and calcium is realeased from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- Muscle fiber contracts as the sarcomeres in the myofibrils shorten.
- When a sarcomere shortens, the actin (thin filaments) slide past the myosin (thick filaments) and approach one another.
- This makes the I band shorten, the Z line move inward, and the H zone disappear.
- Sliding Filament Model: This movement of actin filaments in relation to myosin filaments during muscle contraction.
(Insert Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure and Functions picture / Frolich Powerpoint Slide 5)
- During the sliding process, the sarcomere shortens, though the filaments themselves remain the same length. ATP supplies energy, and the myosin filaments break down ATP, and their cross-bridges pull the actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. (Mader 232)
(Insert Mechanism of Muscle Contraction picture / courses.cm.utexas.edu / http://courses.cm.utexas.edu/jrobertus/ch339k/overheads-1.htm)
D. Control of Muscle Fiber Contraction:
1d. "Neuron brings impulse to synapse with muscle." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4).
- Motor Neurons stimulate muscle fibers to contract. Their axons are in nerves.
- This axon can stimulate a few to several muscle fibers because each axon has several branches.
- Each branch ends in an axon terminal that is close to the sarcolemma of a muscle fiber.
- Synaptic cleft: small gap separating the axon terminal from the sarcolemma.
- Neuromuscular Junction: Name for this entire region.
(Insert Neuromuscular Junction picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4)
2d. Axon terminals have synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh).
- When a nerve impulses, (traveling down a motor neuron), it arrives at an axon terminal, where the synaptic vesicles release ACh into the synaptic cleft.
- When ACh is released, it diffuses across the cleft and binds to receptors in the sarcolemma.
- Sarcolemma gives impulses that spread over the sarcolemma and down T tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. (Mader 234)
- Ca2+ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and leads to sarcomere contraction.
- Muscle relaxes when Ca2+ returns to sarcoplasmic reticulum. (Mader 232)
- Sooo, in a nutshell: Calcium release occurs in the following manner:
- Motor neuron impulse arrives to axonal terminus.
- Neuro-muscular junction synapse passes message on to muscle cell.
- Sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane) undergoes action potential all along length of cell membrane and into T-tubule system.
- Voltage change causes release of Ca+2 ions into muscle cell.
- Calcium causes actin-myosin units (sarcomeres) to shorten. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 7)
- " Muscle cells shorten by sliding protein filaments (actin-myosin units)" (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4)
- "Movements at protein level cause whole muscle to rapidly shorten or contract." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4)
- The protein Tropomysin wraps around an actin filament, and troponin occurs at intervals along the threads.
- Myosin can then bind with actin.
III. Whole Muscle Contraction
A. Dependent on muscle fiber contraction.
1a. Muscles Have Motor Units:
- Motor Unit: A nerve fiber and all of the muscle fibers it innervates.
- All-or-None Law: All muscle fibers in a motor unit are stimulated at once, and they either ALL contract, or none contract.
- Variable of Interest: Number of muscle fibers within a motor unit.
2a. Muscle Twitch: Occurs when a motor unit is stimulated by infrequent electrical imulses, and a single contraction occurs that lasts a fraction of a second. Divided into three periods:
- Latent period: Time between stimulation and initiation of a contraction.
- Contraction period: Muscle shortens.
- Relaxation period: Muscle returns to former length.
3a. Summation: Increased muscle contraction until maximal sustained contraction (tetanus) is achieved.
- Muscles fatigue due to use of energy reserves.
- Recruitment: When the intensity of nervous stimulation increases, more and more motor units in a muscle are activated.
- Maximum contraction of a muscle occurs when all motor units undergo tetanic contraction. (Rare, to avoid all of the fatiguing at the same time.)
- Muscle Tone: Firm and solid muscle.
B. Energy for Muscle Contraction: Various fuel sources for energy, various ways of producing ATP. 4 possible energy sources:
1b. Fuel Sources for Exercise:
- Glycogen and fat (triglycerides), stored in muscles.
- Blood glucose and plasma fatty acids in blood.
* Adipose Tissue: Source of plasma fatty acids that muscle burns as energy source.
* Both delivered to muscles through circulating blood.
C. Sources of ATP for Muscle Contraction:
1c. Muscle cells can acquire more ATP needed for contraction once stored ATP has been used up in three ways:
1. Formation of ATP by the creatine phosphate pathway.
- Simplest and fastest, only one reaction.
- Occurs in the midst of sliding filaments.
- Creatine phosphate is formed when a muscle cell is resting.
(Mader 236-237)

Compendium Review Chapter 11

2008-07-03T11:13:00.000-07:00

Full Skeleton: Note Appendicular Skeleton

Interesting pic of rib cage! :)

Vertebral Column

Bones of Skull

Axial Skeleton

Spiral Fracture

Bone Remodeling

Epiphyseal Plate 2

Epiphyseal Plate

Long Bone

Skeletal System

I. Overview of Skeletal System
II. Bone Growth, Remodeling and Repair
III. Bones of the Axial Skeleton

IV. Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
V. Articulations

I. Overview of Skeletal System
A. Consists of the bones, cartilage, and fibrous connective tissue, found in ligaments at the joints.
(Insert Skeletal System picture / hsc.csu.edu.au / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S020uaM21In60AXlSjzbkF/SIG=12ni7sovr/EXP=1215202586/**http%3A//hsc.csu.edu.au/senior_science/core/bionics/9_3_3/933net.html)
B. Functions of the Skeleton
- Supports the body.
- Protects soft parts of body.
- Produces blood cells.
- Stores minerals and fats.
-Permits flexible body movement (w/ muscles.)
C. Anatomy of Long Bone
A. Main portion (shaft) is the diaphysis.
- Diaphysis has a large medullary cavity, (a hollow tube- Frolich PowerPoint Slide 19) whose walls are made of compact bone.
- Lined with thin, vascular membrane (endosteum).
- Filled with yellow bone marrow that stores fat.
B. Epiphyses: Expanded region at end of long bone.
- Composed mostly of spongy bone that contains red bone marrow, where blood cells are made.
- Coated with thin layer of hyaline cartilage, called articular cartilage, because it occurs at joint.
- Periosteum: A layer of fibrous connective tissue that covers all of a long bone except the articular cartilage on end of bone. Covering contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
C. Bone:
1c. Compact Bone: Highly organized and made of tubular units called osteons.
- Osteocytes: Bone cells that lie in the lacunae within the osteon.
2c. Spongy Bone: Unorganized appearance. Contains numerous thin plates (trabeculae)separated by unequal spaces.
- Lighter than compact bone, but still designed for strength.
- Trabeculae follow lines of stress, as supporters.
- Spaces are often filled with red bone marrow, a tissue that makes all types of blood cells.
D. Cartilage:
1d. Not as strong as bone.
- More flexible because the matrix is gel-like and contains collagen and elastic fibers.
- Chondrocytes: Cells of cartilage that like within lacunae that are irregularly grouped.
- No nerves.
- Suited for padding joints.
- No blood vessels, so it is slow to heal.
2d. Three types:
- Hyaline Cartilage: Firm and somewhat flexible. Matrix is uniform and glassy, but has a good supply of collagen fibers. Found at end of long bones, in nose, ends of ribs, and in larynx and trachea.
- Fibrocartilage: Stronger than hyaline, because matrix has rows of thick collagen fibers. Can withstand pressure and tension. Found in disks located between vertebrae and in cartilage of the knees.
- Elastic Cartilage: More flexible than hyaline, because matrix has mostly elastin fibers. Found in ear flaps and epiglottis.
E. Fibrous Connective Tissue: Contains rows of cells called fibroblasts separated by bundles of collagenous fibers. (Mader 208)

- Organized in layers around blood vessels. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 16)
1e. Ligaments: Made of fibrous connective tissue. Connects bone to bone.
2e. Tendons: Made up of fibrous connective tissue. Connect muscles to a bone at joints (articulations.) (Mader 208)
(Insert Anatomy of Long Bone picture / pathologyoutlines.com / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S0200ORG1Iw3gB8qyjzbkF/SIG=11q06s9k7/EXP=1215206798/**http%3A//pathologyoutlines.com/bone.html )
II. Bone Growth, Remodeling and Repair

A. Bones are made up of living tissues, and they can grow, remodel, and repair. (Mader 208)

- Has nerves, blood supply, cells. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 16)
1a. Types of cells involved in growth, remodeling and repair:
- Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells. Secrete organic matrix of bone and promote the deposition of calcium salts into the matrix.
- Osteocytes: Mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts. Maintain structure of bone.
- Osteoclasts: Bone-absorbing cells. Break down bone and assist in depositing calcium and phosphate in blood.
B. Remodeling: Bones can grow throughout an entire lifetime by changing size, shape, and strength in response to stress.
C. Bone Repair: If a bone fractures, it can heal.
D. Bone Development and Growth:
1d. Ossification: Formation of bone.
2d. Skeleton begins forming at 6 weeks gestation, through intramembranous ossification and endochondal ossification.
* Intramembranous Ossification: Ex. Flat bones, like those of the skull.
- Bones develop between sheets of fibrous connective tissue.
- Cells that are made from connective tissue cells become osteoblasts, and they are housed in ossification centers.
- Osteoblasts secrete the organic matrix of bone. They also promote calcification.
- Periosteum forms outside the spongy bone and osteoblasts, and they carry out further ossification.
- Trabeculae form and fuse to become compact bone.
* Endochrondral Ossification: Most bones of human skeleton are formed by this method.
- Bone replaces cartilaginous models of bones.
- Cartilage is gradually replaced by calcified bone matrix.
- Bone formation spreads from center to ends.
3d. The Cartilage Model:
- Chondrocytes lay down hyaline cartilage, in the shape of future bones.
- As the models calcify, chondrocytes die.
4d. The Bone Collar:
- Osteoblasts (from periosteum) secrete the organic bone matrix, which undergoes calcification, resulting in bone collar.
- Bone collar (made of compact bone) covers the diaphysis.
5d. The Primary Ossification Center:
- Blood vessels bring osteoblasts to the interior, and they lay down spongy bone. Called the primary ossification center.
6d. The Medullary Cavity and Secondary Ossification Sites:
- Spongy bone of diaphysis is absorbed by osteoclasts, and the cavity created becomes the medullary cavity.
- Shortly after birth, secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses.
- Red bone marrow is present in spongy bone in epiphyses.
- Cartilage is present in the epiphyseal (growth) plate and articular cartilage.
7d. The Epiphyseal (Growth) Plate:
- Band of cartilage remains between primary ossification center and each secondary center. (Mader 211)

- "Bone growth occurs at cartilaginous growth plate between diaphysis and epiphysis at either end of bone." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 18)
(Insert Epiphyesal Plate pictures 1 & 2 / oregonstate.edu / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S0207MT21I9HMBZfyjzbkF/SIG=136pqoher/EXP=1215209804/**http%3A//oregonstate.edu/~peila/Pharmstuff/Projector%2520Slides/Projector%2520Slides & http://www.kort.com/ / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S020r2UG1IPxwBI8ajzbkF/SIG=13m4s38mn/EXP=1215210102/**http%3A//www.kort.com/cond_injuries_topic.aspx%3FtID=192c44869f07e0f9a0099b5f676b60d4%26amp;catID=46)
- When the epiphyseal plates close, growth in bone length stops. For women, this happens around age 18, age 20 for men.
E. Hormones Affect Bone Growth:
1e. Growth Hormone: A chemical messenger that affects bone growth.
- Directly stimulates growth of the epiphyseal plate, and bone growth in general.
- Works in conjunction with the metabolic activity of cells.
- Thyroid hormone promotes the metabolic activity of cells.
F. Bone Remodeling and Its Role in Homeostasis
1f. Bone is constantly broken down by osteoclasts and rebuilt by osteoblasts in an adult.
- Approx. 18% of bone is recycled per year. = Bone remodeling.
- Keeps bones strong.
- Allows body to regulate amount of calcium in blood, which is required for blood clotting.
- Bones are storage sites for calcium. (Mader 210-212)

- Calcium is needed for many aspects of cell metabolism, but is especially crucial to muscle cells. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 20)
- Hormones involved in regulating blood calcium level: Parathyroid hormone, which accelerates bone recycling and increases blood calcium level, and Calcitonin that acts opposite to PTH. (Mader 210-212)

- Osteoporosis: Result of calcium need outweighing bone support role. Most common in women, and the elderly. Bone is broken down by osteoclasts faster than it is formed by osteoblasts. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 21)
- Exercise keeps bones strong because they stimulate the work of osteoblasts instead of osteoclasts. (Mader 210-212)
(Insert Bone Remodeling picture / http://www.octusa.com/ / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S020umVG1IZ9UAqqejzbkF/SIG=123mm20gh/EXP=1215211046/**http%3A//www.octusa.com/product/Osteoporosis.html)
G. Bone Repair:
1g. Required after break or fracture.
- Fracture Repair: Takes several months, in four steps:
1. Hematoma: After a fracture, blood escapes from ruptured blood vessels and forms a hematoma, a mass of clotted blood, between the broken bones within 6-8 hours.
2. Fibrocartilaginous Callus: Tissue repair begins, and a fibrocartilaginous callus fills the space between ends of broken bone for approx. 3 weeks.
3. Bony Callus: Osteoblasts produce trabeculae of spongy bone and changes the fibrocartilage callus to a boney callus that joins the broken bones together. Approx. 3-4 months.
- Remodeling: Osteoblasts build new compact bone at the periphery, and osteoclasts absorb the spongy bone, creating a new medullary cavity.
2g. Types of Fractures:
- Complete Fracture: Bone is broken clear through.
- Incomplete Fracture: bone is not separated into two parts.
- Simple: Does not pierce the skin.
- Compound: Does pierce the skin.
- Impacted: Broken ends are wedged into each other.
- Spiral: Break is ragged due to twisting of bone. (Mader 214)
(Insert Spiral Fracture picture http://www.flickr.com/ / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S0200uWG1IHIYBeomjzbkF/SIG=127bmguvs/EXP=1215211950/**http%3A//www.flickr.com/photos/spurkatory/1085629545/
III. Bones of the Axial Skeleton
A. All 206 bones of the skeleton are either in the axial skeleton or the appendicular skeleton.
B. Axial Skeleton:
1b. Lies in midline of the body and consists of skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and rib cage.
(Insert Axial Skeleton picture academic.wsc.edu / http://academic.wsc.edu/faculty/jatodd1/351/ch4outline.html)
C. Skull: Formed by the cranium and facial bones.
D. Cranium: Protects the brain.
- 8 bones that fit tightly together (in adults).
- In newborns, bones are not completely formed and are joined by fontanels.
1d. Some bones contain sinuses: air spaces lined by mucous membrane.
- They reduce the weight of the skull and give a resonant sound to the voice.
- Mastoid sinuses drain into middle ear. (Mastoiditis in inflammation of these sinuses.)
2d. Major bones of cranium have same names as lobes of the brain:
- Frontal (forms forehead), parietal (extend to the sides), occipital (forms base of skull, and has opening called foreamen magnum that allows the spinal cord to pass and become the brain stem), and temporal (opening that leads to middle ear).
- Sphenoid bone is shaped like a bat and extends across the floor of the cranium from one side to the other. Keystone of cranial bones because all others articulate with it. Completes side of skull and is part of forming the orbits.
- Ethmoid bone In front of sphenoid. Helps for orbits and nasal septum.
(Insert Bones of Skull picture / svhrad.com / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S0202QgG1IITIASQWjzbkF/SIG=11v1r1obr/EXP=1215222288/**http%3A//svhrad.com/DigLib/digitallibrary.htm)
E. The Facial Bones:
- Mandible: Lower jaw. Only movable portion of skull. Also forms chin and contains teeth sockets.
- Maxillae: Bones that form the upper jaw and the anterior portion of hard palate. Also contains tooth sockets.
- Zygomatic Bones: Cheekbone.
- Nasal Bones: Form bridge of nose.
F. Hyoid Bone:
- Not part of skull, but it is part of the axial skeleton.
- Only bone in body that does not articulate with another bone.
- Attached to temporal bones by muscles and ligaments and to the larynx by a membrane.
- Anchors the tongue. (Mader 216-217)
G. Vertebral Column:
1g. Consists of 33 vertebrae.
- Normal vertebral column has four curvatures to provide resilience and strength in posture.
- Spinal cord passes through the vertebral canal.
- Spinal nerves control skeletal muscle contractions.
- Spinous processess of vertebrae and the transverse processess are attachment sites for the muscles that move the vertebral column.
(Insert Vertebral Column picture / people.emich.edu / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S0202Hhm1IITIAE3WjzbkF/SIG=12ro09un5/EXP=1215223815/**http%3A//people.emich.edu/pbogle/PHED_200/outlines/chapter_07/outline.htm)

H. Types of Vertebrae:

1h. Named according to location in vertebral column.

- Cerebral- in neck.

- Atlas- holds up head.

-Axis- Allows rotation in head.

- Thoracic- ribs., etc.

I. Intervertebral Disks:

- Between vertebrae. Composed of fibrocartilage that act as padding so vertebrae don't grind together.

- Absorbs shock caused by movement.

- Degenerate with age.

J. Rib Cage (Thoracic Cage):

1j. Composed of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, cartilage and sternum.

- Protects heart and lungs.

- Moves with respiration.

(Insert Rib Cage picture / http://www.flickr.com/ / http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0S0200Com1IME8AY5OjzbkF/SIG=12juoekqm/EXP=1215230850/**http%3A//www.flickr.com/photos/jamesparkerphotography/2243044147/ )

K. Ribs:

1k. Flattened bone beginning in thoracic vertebrae and goes toward anterior thoracic wall.

- 12 pairs.

- Articulates with body and transverse process of it's thoracic vertebra.

- Upper 7 (true) ribs connect to sternum by costal cartilage.

- "False ribs", the next three pairs, connect to sternum by a common cartilage.

- "Floating ribs", the last two pairs, do not connect to sternum at all.

L. Sternum: Lies in midline of body.

-Helps protect heart and lungs.

-Flat, knife-shaped.

1l. Composed of three bones: manubrium (handle / joins with body of sternum at angle), body (blade), and the xiphoid process (point of blade / attachment site for diaphragm). (Mader 218-219)

IV. Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

A. The bones in the pectoral and pelvic areas and their attached limbs.

1a. Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb:

-Specialized for flexibility.

- Left and right pectoral girdles: each has a scapula (shoulder blade / visible bone in back.) and a clavicle (collarbone that extends across top of thorax. Articulates with sternum.)

2a. Glenoid cavity of scapula articulates with head of humerus.

- Allows arm to move easily in different directions, thus most prone to dislocation.

3a. Rotator Cuff: Formed by tendons that extend to humerus from four small muscles beginning in scapula.

4a. Humerus: Single long bone in arm. Fits into glenoid cavity of scapula.

5a. Capitulum and Trochlea: protuberances at far end of humerus that articulate with the radius and the unla at the elbow.

6a. Wrist has 8 carpal bones, that look like pebbles. Five metacarpal bones fan out to make palm.

- Phalanges: Bones of fingers and thumb.

B. Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb:

1b. Pelvic Girdle is two heavy, large bones- hip bones.

2b. Pelvis: Basin made of pelvic girdle, sacrum, and coccyx.

- Bears weight of body, protects organs, and is the place of leg attachment.

3b. Coxal Bone: 3 parts:

- Ilium: largest part of coxal bones. Hips come from its flareout.

- Ischium: What we sit on. Hips occurs where it flares out.

- Pubis: Anterior part of coxal bone.

4b. Pubic Symphysis: Where the two pubic bones connect in fibrocartilaginous joint.

5b. Femur: Longest and strongest bone in body.

- Articulates with tibia.

- Patella: kneecap.

6b. Fibula: Slender bone in leg.

- Articulates with tibia and a distal lateral malleolus.

7b. Ankle has many tarsal bones.

- Instep has five elongated metatarsal bones.

- Phalanges: Bones of toes. (Mader 220-221)

(Insert Full Skeleton picture / http://www.medtrng.com/ / http://www.medtrng.com/anatomy%20lesson/bph5.htm)

V. Articulations

A. Bones joined at joints, which are either fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial.

1a. Joints are classified according to their degree of movement. (ARIS Mader Text Website Chapter 11 Review)

- Fibrous joints, such as the sutures between bones in cranium, are not able to move.

- Cartilaginous joints are connected by hyaline cartilage, like those that joind the ribs to sternum. Slightly movable.

- Synovial joints are freely movable.

- Synovial fluid acts as lubricant.

- Ball and socket joints at hips and shoulders allow movement in all ways, even rotational.

- Elbows and knees: synovial but hinged: movement in one direction only.

B. Movements Permitted by Synovial Joints:

- Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons that span joints.

- When a muscle contracts, one bone moves in relation to another bone. (Mader 222)

Leech Neuron Lab

2008-07-02T12:42:00.001-07:00

Screen shot of Ultra-Violet Image of Neuron

Screen shot of Manipulator with Oscillope Trace

QUESTIONS ABOUT LEECH NEUROPHYSIOLOGY LAB:
(Answer these questions to get full exemplary lab credit (A-level, 18-20 points)

1. What is the electrode measuring? Electrodes measure the activity of the neurons, or the voltage of the cell. (Measurement of potential difference.) I found it very interesting that a neuron spike was only detected in the P cell that I found when a probe was used. This showed Action Potential.

2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments? "The nervous system of the leech consists of the brain, the ventral nerve cord, and ganglia that are located in each segment along the nerve cord. The medicinal leech has 21 segmental ganglia, each containing 175 pairs of neurons. The relatively small number and the large size of the neurons have made leeches favorite subjects of neurobiologists." (From Leech Background Information on lab website.) So, a leech makes for a convenient subject because the neurons are large and can be located pretty easily.

3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?
A sensory neuron transmits nerve impulses to the central nervous system after a sensory receptor has been stimulated. A motor nueron is a nerve cell that conducts nerve impulses away from the central nervous system and innervateds muscles and glands, called effectors.
4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?

5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?
1. The fact that a P cell reacts to a probe (medium) but not a forcep (high).
2. The dye injection allowing us to see the morphology of the neuron. Very cool!

6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?
Not at all. I really enjoyed this one!

Compendium Review Chapter 14

2008-07-02T06:50:00.000-07:00

Equilibrium

Anatomy of Ear

Astigmatic Eye

Structure and Function of Retina

Damaged Rod Cells of Eye

Anatomy of Eye

Smell

Taste

Pain Receptor in Skin

I. Sensory Receptors and Sensations
II. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
III. Senses of Taste and Smell
IV. Sense of Vision
V. Sense of Hearing
VI. Sense of Equilibrium

I. Sensory Receptors and Sensations
A. Sensory Receptors: Special dendrites that detect certain types of stimuli.
- Extroceptors: Sensory receptors that detect stimuli from outside the body (result in taste, smell, vision, hearing and equilibrium.)
- Interoreceptors: Receive stimuli from inside the body. (Ex. Pressoreceptors respond to changes in blood pressure.) Directly involved in homeostasis; regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
B. Types of Sensory Receptors: 4 Categories
1b. Chemoreceptors: Respond to chemical substances in immediate area. (taste and smell, and various other organs sensitive to internal stimuli.)
2b. Pain Receptors: Type of chemoreceptor. Naked dendrites that respond to chemicals released by damaged tissue. Protective- alert us of danger.
(Insert Pain Receptor in Skin picture / fig.cox.miami.edu / http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/neuro/senses.htm)
3b. Photoreceptors: Respond to light energy. (Eyes) Stimulation results in color vision.
4b. Mechanoreceptors: Stimulated by mechanical forces, which often result in pressure of some sort. (hearing, balance)
5b. Thermoreceptors: Located in hypothalamus and skin. Stimulated by changes in temperature. (warm receptors- temps rise. cold receptors- temps fall.) (Mader 274)
C. How Sensation Occurs:
- Sensory receptors respond to stimulus from body or environment.
- These receptor cells trigger action potential in connecting sensory neurons.
- Spinal cord and/or brain interpret and analyze information.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 24), and initiate motor response. (Mader 275)
1c. Sensation: The conscious perception of stimuli.
2c. Review: Sensory receptors are first element in reflex arc. Reflex actions become known to us only when sensory info reaches the brain. The brain then integrates this info with other info from other sensory receptors.
3c. All sensory receptors initiate nerve impulses, and the resulting sensation depends on which part of the brain receives the impulse.
4c. Integration: The summing up of signals. Occurs BEFORE sensory receptors initiate the nerve impulse.
5c. Sensory Adaptation: A type of integration. A decrease in response to stimulus. (When you get "used" to a smell, etc.) (Mader 275)
II. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
A. Sensory Receptors: 3 types
- Proprioceptors: Mechanoreceptors involved in reflex actions that maintain muscle tone, equilibrium, and posture. They detect the degree of muscle relaxation, stretch of tendons, and movement of ligaments. (Mader 276) More simply put, "Proprioception—gives body position by sensing muscle tension." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 27)
B. Cutaneous Receptors: Skin is composed of two layers, the epidermis and dermis.
1b. Dermis contains cutaneous receptors: Causes skin to be sensitive to the touch, pressure, pain, and termperature.
2b. There are three types of cutaneous receptors that are sensitive to fine touch: Meissner corpuscles, Merkel disks, and root hear plexus.
3b. Two types of cutaneous receptors sensitive to pressure: Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endings.
4b. Temperature Receptors: Free nerve endings in the epidermis.
C. Pain Receptors: Internal organs have pain receptors, as do the skin. Sensitive to chemicals released by damaged tissues.
1c. Referred Pain: Occurs when pain receptors are stimulated from the skin as well as the internal organs. (Mader 277)
III. Senses of Taste and Smell
A. Taste and Smell are chemical receptors because the receptors are sensitive to molecules in the food we eat and air we breathe.
1a. Bear chemoreceptors: Plasma membrane receptors that bind to particular molecules. Two Types:
- Some respond to distant stimuli (olfactory cells), and
- some respond to direct stimuli (taste cells).
B. Taste: Approx. 3,000 taste buds on tongue. 4 primary types:
- Sweet
- Sour
- Salty
- Bitter
1b. The brain receives taste information when molecules bind to receptor proteins of the microvilli, and nerve impulses are generated in sensory nerve fibers that go to the brain. (Mader 278)
(Insert Taste picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 29)
C. Sense of Smell: Approx. 80-90% of what we think is taste is actually from the sense of smell.
1c. 10-20 million olfactory cells (which are modified neurons)
are located wihtin the olfactory epithelium in the roof of nasal cavity.
2c. Each olfactory cell ends in a bunch of approx. five olfactory cilia, which haave the receptor proteins for odor molecules.
3c. The brain receives smell information when nerve fibers from like olfactory cells lead to the same neuron in the olfactory bulb, and extension of the brain. An odor has many odor molecules, which activiate a characteristic combination of receptor proteins. Neurons then communicate this ifo via the olfactory tract to the corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex.
4c. Smell actually deteriorates with age! (Mader 278-279)
(Insert Smell picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 30)
IV. Sense of Vision
A. Requires work of eyes and brain. Eyes process a good deal of stimuli before nerve impulses are sent to the brain. Still, Approx. 1/3 of cerebral cortex takes part in processing visual info.
B. Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye
1b. Eyeball is an elongated sphere.
- Three layers:
- Layer 1: Sclera: (outer layer)that includes cornea ("window" of the eye).
- Layer 2: Choroid: (middle, thin, dark layer. Absorbs light rays that photoreceptors have not absorbed.) Choroid becomes the iris, which regulates the size of the pupil, the hole in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eyeball.)
- Ciliary Body: Contains ciliary muscle, to control shape of lens for near and far vision.
- Lens: Attached to ciliary body by ligaments, it divides eye into two compartments.
1. Compartment in front of lens is the anterior compartment. Filled with clear, watery fluid called aqueous humor.
2. Compartment behind lens in the posterior compartment.
- Layer 3: Retina: Located in posterior compartment, filled with clear, gel material called vitreous humor. Also contains rod cells (very sensitive to light, but does not see color) and cone cells (require bright light, sensitive to different wavelengths of light, and can distinguish colors).
- Fovea Centralis: Region of retina where cone cells are dense. Vision is most acute here.
- Sensory fibers from retina form optic nerve, which takes nerve impulses to visual cortex of brain.
C. Function of Lens: Cornea focuses images on retina. Focusing continues as rays go through lens and humors. Image is smaller than object, and is inverted and reversed.
D. Visual Accomodation: Occurs for close vision. Lens rounds up, to bring image to focus on retina.
E. Visual Pathway to Brain: Once light has been focused on photoreceptors in retina, integration occurs in retina, and then nerve impulses begin before the optic nerve transmits them to the brain.
(Insert Anatomy of Eye picture / www.rennard.org / http://www.rennard.org/alife/english/biomintrgb.html)
F. Function of Photoreceptors: These rod and cone cells both have outer segment joined to inner segment by a stalk. Pigment molecules are embedded in membrane of disks in outer segment.
- Rods are sensitive to light- suited for night vision.
- Cones are activated by bright light, and allow us to detect fine detail and color of an object.
(Insert Damaged Rod Cells of Eye picture / www.medicalprogress.org)
G. Function of Retina: Retina has three layers of neurons.
1. Layer closest to choroid has rod cells and cone cells.
2. Middle layer has bipolar cells.
3. Innermost layer has ganglion cells, whose sensory fibers turn into the optic nerve.
1g. Since only rod and cone cells are sensitive tolight, light must penetrate to the back of the retina before they are stimulated. (Mader 282)
2g. Integration occurs when signals pass to bipolar and ganglion cells. They then create the nerve impulses that are taken to the optic nerve to the visual cortex of brain.
H. Blind Spot: Area of no vision. No rods and cones are present where the optic nerve exits the retina.
I. From Retina to Visual Cortex
1i. Optic Chiasma: Optic nerves carry nerve impulses from eyes to optic chiasma, which is x shapted, and formed by the crossing of optic nerve fibers.
2i. Images are "righted" in brain.
(Insert Retina Receptors picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 32)
J. Abnormalities of Eye
1j. Color blindness.
2j. Misshapen eyeballs.
3j. Nearsightedness: Can see close objects better than those at a distance. Elongated eyeballs.
4j. Farsighted: Cannot see close objects. Shortened eyeballs.
5j. Astigmatism: Cornea or lens is uneven, and images are funny.
(Mader 284)
(Insert Astigmatic Eye picture / www.daviddarling.info / http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/astigmatism.html)
V. Sense of Hearing
A. Ear has two sensory functions: hearing and balance (equilibrium).
1a. Sensory receptors for both functions are located in inner ear, consisting of hair cells with long microvilli that are sensitive to mechanical stimulation. Mechanoreceptors.
B. Anatomy and Physiology of Ear: Ear has three divisions:
1. Outer Ear: Consists of pinna (external flap) and auditory canal. Secretes ear way, to hellp protect against entrance of foreign materials.
2. Middle Ear: Begins at tympanic membrane (eardrum) and ends at bony wall that has two small openings covered by membranes, called oval window and round window. Ossicles (three small bones) are found between tympanic membrane and oval window.
- Auditory Tube: (eustachian tube) Extends from middle ear to nasopharynx, permitting equalization of air pressure.
3. Inner Ear: Filled with fluid. Has three areas:
- 1. Semicircular canals
- 2. Vestibule (Both of these are concerned with equilibrium.)
- 3. Cochlea: concerned with hearing.
C. Auditory Pathway to Brain: Sound pathway begins with auditory canal, but then hearing requires other parts of the ear, the cochlear nerve and brain.
1c. Through auditory canal and middle ear: Hearing begins when sound waves enter the auditory canal. Sound waves travel by successive vibrations of molecules. Stapes strikes the membrane of oval window, it vibrates, and the pressure is passed to fluid within the cochlea.
2c. From cochlea to auditory cortex: Spiral organ: located in the cochlear canal. Consists of little hair cells and gel material called tectorial membrane.
- Pressure waves move from vestibular canal to tympanic canal.
- Nerve imulses begin in cochlear nerve and travel to brain. (Mader 286-287)
(Insert Anatomy of Ear picture / www2.hawaii.edu / http://www2.hawaii.edu/~heirakuj/ear.htm)
V. Sense of Equilibrium
A. Vestibular nerve takes impulses to brain stem and cerebellum. Through this communication, it helps us achieve equilibrium. Proprioceptors are also necessary.
B. Rotational Equilibrium Pathway:
- Mechanoreceptors in the semicircular canals detect rotational and / or angular movement of the head (rotational equilibrium.)
1b. Ampulla: Base of each of three canals, slightly enlarged.
- Each ampulla responds to head rotation in a different plane of space.
- Brain uses info from hair cells wihin ampulla of semicircular canals to maintain equilibrium through motor output to various skeletal muscles that can right the position of the body.
C. Gravitational Equilibrium Pathway: Mechanoreceptors in utricle and saccule detect movement of head in vertical or horizontal planes (gravitational equilibrium).
- Utricle and saccule are two membranous sacs located in inner ear. (Mader 291)
(Insert Equilibrium picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 34)

Compendium Review Chapter 13

2008-06-30T18:31:00.000-07:00

Comparison of Somatic Motor and Autonomic Motor Pathway

Nerve

Lobes of Cerebral Hemisphere

Ventricles of Brain

Spinal Cord 2

Spinal Cord 1

Synapse

Myelinated Sheath

Action Potential

Path of Nerve Impulse

Myelin Sheath

Motor Neuron

Sensory Neuron

Neuroglia

Central Nervous System, "real"

Central Nervous System Labeled

Central Nervous System Chart

I. Overview of the Nervous System
II. The Central Nervous System
III. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
IV. The Peripheral Nervous System
V. Drug Abuse

I. Overview of the Nervous System
A. Two major divisions:
1a. Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord, located midline of body.
2a. Peripheral Nervous System: The nerves. Lie outside of the CNS.
3a. Three functions of the Nervous System:
1. Receives sensory input. "Sensory receptors in skin and other organs respond to external and internal stimuli by generating nerve impulses that travel by was of the PNS to the CNS."
2. CNS performs "integration"- it takes the input from all over the body and summarizes it.
3. CNS creates "motor output"- the nerve impulses from the CNS go to the muscles and glands by way of the PNS. (Mader 248)
(Insert central nervous system chart picture / www.ling.mq.edu.au http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/ling/units/sph302/neuroling)
(Insert central nervous system labeled picture / www.flickr.com http://www.flickr.com/photos/rbjaneite/2219438029/)
(Insert central nervous system "real" picture / www.flickr.com http://www.flickr.com/photos/57368254@N00/142842721/)
B. Nervous Tissue
1b. Contains two types of cells: Neurons (cells that transmit nerve impulses between the parts of the nervous system; these are the main cells of the nervous system)(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 9)and (Mader 249), and Neuroglia (support and nourish the neurons.)
(Insert Neuroglia picture / www.afh.bio.br / http://www.afh.bio.br/nervoso/nervoso2.asp)
- Neurons transmit the messages, while the axon carries the message.
- "Dendrites connect to other cells, usually neurons or muscle cells." A single cell can connect to thousands of others through these dendrites.
- Most neurons do not divide or die, so they last a lifetime! (Frolich PowerPoint Slides 2 and 9).
C. Neuron Structure: There are three types of neurons.
1c. Sensory Neuron: Takes nerve impulses (messages) from a sensory receptor (special structures that detect changes in the environment) to the CNS. (Mader 249) Sensory Neurons- action potential brings message to brain or spinal cord with sensory input information from sensory receptors. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 20)
- They are bundled in the nerves.
- Bring in information from almost every tissue, organ, and body structure (except brain and spinal cord.) (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 12)
(Insert Sensory Neuron picture / science.kennesaw.edu http://science.kennesaw.edu/~jdirnber/Bio2108/Lecture/LecPhysio/PhysioNervous.html)
2c. Interneuron: Lies entirely within the CNS. Can receive information from the sensory neurons and from other interneurons in the CNS. Then, they sum up all the nerve impulses they have gotten from these neurons and communicate with motor neurons.
3c. Motor Neuron: Takes nerve impulses away from the CNS (brain or spinal cord) to an effector (muscle fiber or gland). (Mader 249)
- Also bundled in nerves.
- Bring information to every muscle and gland, including blood vessels. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 12)
* All neurons use the same methods to transmit nerve impulses along neurons and across synapses. (Mader Text Website Chapter 13 Review)
- Effectors carry out our responses to environmental changes, internal or external._
(Insert Motor neuron picture / www.nicksnowden.net / http://www.nicksnowden.net/Module_4pages/ions_nerves_and_muscles.htm)
4c. All neurons have 3 parts:
1. Cell Body: Contains nucleus and other organelles.
2. Dendrites: Many short extensions that receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons. These signals can result in nerve impulses are are then conducted by an axon.
3. Axon: Portion of a neuron that conducts nerve impulses. When present in nerves, it is called a nerve fiber.
D. Myelin Sheath: A protective covering on axons. (Mader 249)
- A single neuron has hundreds or thousands of axons,and each axon is surrounded by the myelin sheath. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 10)
1d. In PNS, the myelin sheath is formed by a type of neuroglia called Schwann cells, which contain myelin (a lipid substance) in their plasma membranes. Myelin sheath develops when the Schwann cells wrap themselves around an axon many times. The sheath is broken in places because each neuroglia cell covers only a portion of the axon. These gaps are called nodes of Ranvier.
2d. Long axons have a myelin sheath, short do not.
3d. In the CNS, white matter is white because of the myelin sheath, and gray matter is gray because it does not have myelinated axons.
4d. In the PNS, myelin makes nerve fibers appear white and glistening, and also serves as insulation. Also plays important part in nerve regeneration. Serves as a passageway for new fiber growth when an axon is severed.
(Insert Myelin Sheath picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 11)
2d. In the CNS, oligodendrocytes cover the axons.
3d. Disorders: Multiple Sclerosis (an attack on the myelin by the body's immune system), and Leukodystrophies (caused by loss of myelin from axons.) (Mader 249)
E. Nerve Impulses: Convey information within the nervous system. 1e. voltmeter measures the potential difference between two sides of the axonal membrane, which allows us to study the nerve impulse.
(Insert nerve impulse picture / www.phschool.com http://www.phschool.com/atschool/science_activity_library/path_nerve_impulse.html)
2e. Resting Potential: The axon is NOT conducting an impulse. Voltmeter records a membrane potential of approx. -65mV (millivolts). This implies that the inside of the neuron is more negative than the outside. (Mader 250)
- Happens in thousands of a second, and constantly maintains resting state for all neurons and muscle cells so they are ready to “fire”." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 13)
- During resting potential, there are more sodium ions (Na+)outside the axon than inside, and the concentration of potassium ions (K+) is greater inside the axon than outside.
- The sodium potassium pump is responsible for the unequal distribution of these ions, because it actively trnaports sodium out of and potassium into the axon across the membrane.
- Membrane is permeable to K+ ions but not Na+ ions, so there are always more positive ions outside the membrane than inside. (Mader 250)
3e. Action Potential: "Ability to sense environment, process information rapidly and respond requires rapid transmission of messages within body." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 8)
4e. It is a rapid change in polarity across an axonal membrane as the nerve impulse occurs.
- Threshold: The level of depolarization that occurs from a stimulus to the axonal membrane. This is when the action potential occurs. Requires two types of gated channel proteins that open to allow Na+ and K+ to pass through the membrane. (Mader 250)
- "Gates” are actually protein structures in cell membrane. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 15)
- When an action potential occurs, the gates of sodium channels open first, and Na+ flows into the axon. As Na+ moves inside the axon, the membrane potential goes from -65 mV to +40 mV. This is called depolarization because the charge insde the axon goes from netative to positive.
- Next, the gates of potassium channels open, and K+ flows outside the axon. As this occurs, the action potential changes from +40 mV back to -65 mV, and is called repolarization because the inside of the axon resumes a negative charge as the K+ exits.
- After an action potential has passed, the sodium potassium pump restores the resting potential by moving the K+ back to the inside and Na+ back to the outside. (Mader 250-251)
- "Voltage change from negative resting potential to positive action potential and back to negative resting potential can all happen within 3/1000 of a second." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 17)
(Insert Action Potential picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 15)
F. Propagation of an Action Potential: Self-propagating: Each action potential generates another along the length of the axon.
1f. If an axon is unmyelinated, the action potential at one locale stimulates an adjacent part of the axon's membrane to produce an action potential.
- In myelinated axons, an action potential at one Ranvier node causes an action potential at the next node, and this type of conduction is called saltatory conduction, because the nerve impulse jumps from node to node. (Mader 251) Simply stated, "action potential can jump to nodes where cell membrane is exposed". "It saves energy (so entire membrane doesn’t depolarize) and makes action potential move faster". (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 16)
- In myelinated axons, the nerve impulse is more than 100 m / second, compared to 1.0 m/ second in thin, unmyelinated axons.
(Insert Myelinated Sheath picture / www.neuropathologyweb.org http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1cOligodendroglia.html)
2f. Refractory Period: Occurs immediately after an impulse has passed by each successive portion of an axon. During this period, the sodium gates are unable to open, and therefore, the action potential cannot move backward and instead moved down an axon toward its branches. (Mader 251)
G. The Synapse
1g. Axon Terminal: The small swelling on the tips of axon branches. Each of these terminals lies close to either the dendrite or the cell body of another neuron. This region of close proximity is called a synapse.
2g. Synaptic cleft: At the synapse, the synaptic cleft separates the sending neuron from the receiving neuron.
3g. Neurotransmitters: Since nerve impulses are unable to jump the synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters carry the impulse across a synapse. They are stored in synaptic vesicles in the axon terminals.
- Three steps: 1st, Nerve impulses traveling along an axon reach an axon termimal. 2nd, Calcium ions enter the terminal and stimulate synaptic vesicles to merge with the sending membrane, and 3rd, neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft, and they spread across the cleft to the receiving membrane, where they bind with receptor proteins. This initiates a response. Once finished, the neurotransmitter is removed from the cleft.
4g. Receiving neuron can be excitation or inhibition: in excitation, the sodium gate opens and sodium diffuses into the receiving neuron. An excitatory neurotransmitter produces a potential change called a signal that drives the neuron closer to an action potential. In inhibition, potassium enters the receiving neuron. Produces a signal that drives the neuron farther from an action potential (Mader 252)
(Insert Synapse picture / www.epilepsy.com / http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/brain.html)
5g. Neurotransmitter Molecules: Many drugs that affect the nervous system act by interfering with the action of neurotransmitters.
- Drugs can enhance or block the release of a neurotransmitter, mimic the action of it, block the receptor, or interfere with the removal of neurotranmitters from a synaptic cleft.
6g. Synaptic Integration: The summing up of excitatory and inhibitory signals in the dendrite and cell body of postsynaptic neuron. (Mader 253)
II. The Central Nervous System
A. The Spinal Cord and Brain:
- Protected by bone.
- Spinal cord is surrounded by vertebrae.
- Brain is enclosed in skull.
- Both are wrapped in protective membranes called meninges.
- Spaces between the meninges are filled with cerebrospinal fluid, to cushion and protect the CNS. This fluid is also found within the ventricles of the brain and in the central canal of the spinal cord.
- Brain has four ventricles, which are chamgers that connect with one another and produce and serve as a reservoir for cerebrospinal fluid.
1a. This is where sensory information is received and motor control is initiated.
2a. CNS is made up of two types of nervous tissue: gray matter (contains cell bodies and short, nonmyelinated fibers)and white matter (contains myelinated axons that run together in bundles called tracts.
B. The Spinal Cord: extends from base of brain through a large opening in skull (foramen magnum) and into the vertebral canal formed by openings in the vertebrae.
1b. Structure: Cross section shows a central canal, gray matter, and white matter. - Individual vertebra protects the spinal cord.
- Spinal nerves project from the cord between the vertebrae that make up the vertebral column.
- Intervertebral disks separate the vertabrae.
- Central canal contains cerebrospinal fluid, just like the meninges that protect the spinal cord.
- Gray matter: centrally located, shape of H. This is where parts of sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons are found.
- Dorsal root has sensory vibers entering the gray matter.
- Ventral root has motor fibers exiting gray matter.
- Both roots join before the spinal nerve leaves the vertebral canal as a mixed nerve.
- White matter occurs in areas around the gray matter. Contains tracts that both take info to the brain, and tracts taking info away from brain.
- Left side of brain controls right side of body, and right side of brain controls left side of body. (Mader 254)
C. Functions of Spinal Cord: Provides communication between brain and peripheral nerves that leave the cord. Ex. Something touches your hand, sensory receptors generate nerve impulses that go through sensory fibers to the spinal cord and up ascending tracts to the brain.
1c. Gate Control Theory of Pain: Suggests that the tracts in the spinal cord have "gates", which control the flow of pain messages from the peripheral nerves to the brain. Endorphins can temporarily block pain messages.
2c. Brain initiates voluntarily control over our limbs. Motor impulses that originate in the brain pass down tracts to the spinal cord and out to our muscles by way of motor fibers.
3c. Spinal cord is center for thousands of reflex arcs.
- Stimulus causes sensory receptors to generate nerve impulses that travel in sensory axons to the spinal cord.
- Interneurons integrate the data that comes to them and relay signals to motor neurons.
- Motor axons respond to the stimulus by causing skeletal muscles to contract.
(Mader 255)
- Ex. Spinal cord reflex:
- Sensory neurons action potential bring in pain information from skin.
- Neurons of spinal cord process information, take decision.
- Motor neurons carry output to muscles to move limb away from pain.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 21)
(Insert Spinal Cord pictures / www.ee.umd.edu / http://www.ee.umd.edu/courses/enee719v.S2002/figures/funfigs.html) & ( http://www.uhseast.com/153912.cfm http://www.uhseast.com/153912.cfm)
D. The Brain
1d. 4 Ventricles: Two lateral ventricles (associated with cerebrum), the third ventricle (associated with diencephalon), and the fourth ventricle (associated with brain stem and cerebellum). (Mader 256)
(Insert Ventricles of Brain picture /universe-review.ca / http://universe-review.ca/option2.htm )
2d. The Cerebrum: (AKA telencephalon)makes up the largest portion of the brain in humans. Last to receive sensory input and carry out integration before commanding voluntary motor responses. Communicates with and coordinates activities of other parts of brain.
3d. Cerebral Hemispheres: Two halves of brain, called left and right cerebral hemispheres, divided by the longitudinal fissure.
- Each hemisphere is divided into lobes by sulcus. (Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe... and each is associated with particular functions.)
4d. Cerebral Cortex: Thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres. Accounts for sensation, voluntary movement, and all thought processes when awake.
5d. Primary Motor and Sensory Areas of Cortex:
- Primary Motor Area: Frontal lobe, before central sulcus. Begins voluntary commands to skeletal muscles. Each part of body is controlled by a certain section.
- Primary Somatosensory Area: Just dorsal to central sulcus in parietal lobe. Sensory info from skin and skeletal muscles arrives here, where each part of body is represented sequentially.
(Insert Lobes of Cerebral Hemisphere picture / www.indiana.edu / http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/cer_hemi.htm)
6d. Association Areas: Places where integration occurs.
7d. Processing Centers: In cortex. Receive info from other association areas and performs higher-level analytical functions.
- Prefrontal Area: Association area in frontal lobe, receives info from other association areas and uses it to reason and plan our actions. Integration in this area accounts for critical thinking and formulating appropriate behaviors.
- Wernicke's area and Broca's area: Two processing centers located in left cerbral cortex only. Wernicke's helps us understand written and spoken word and sends info to Broca's area. Broca's helps with grammatical function and directs primary motor area to stimulate appropriate muscles for speaking and writing.
8d. Central White Matter: Composes much of the rest of the cerebrum.
E. The Diencephalon: Region that encircles the third ventricle. Hypothalamus and thalamus are located here.
- Hypothalamus: Forms floor of third ventricle. An integrating center that helps maintain homeostasis by regulating sleep, hunger, thirst, body temp, and water balance. Controls pituitary gland and is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
- Thalamus: Two masses of gray matter that are in the sides and roof of third ventricle. Receives all sensory input except smell. Involved in arousal of cerebrum, and is involved with higher mental functions like memory and emotions.
F. The Cerebellum: Under occipital lobe of cerbrum, separated from brain stem by fourth ventricle.
- Made up of two portions, each composed of white matter.
- Receives sensory input from eyes, ears, joints, and muscles about position of body parts.
- Receives motor output from cerebral cortex about where parts should be located.
- After integration, cerebellum sends motor impulses by way of brain stem to skeletal muscles. Thus, maintains posture and balance. Ensures that muscles work together for voluntary movements.
G. The Brain Stem: Contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
1g. Midbrain: Relay station for tracts passing between cerebrum and spinal cord or cerebellum. - Reflex centers for visual, auditory, and tactile responses.
2g. Pons: "Bridge". Contains bundles of axons traveling between cerebellum and rest of CNS.
- Helps medulla oblongata regulate breathing rate and has reflex centers associated with head movements in response to stimuli.
3g. Medulla Oblongata: Has a number of reflex centers for regulating heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure. Also contains the reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccuping, and swallowing.
- Lies superior to spinal cord.
H. Reticular Formation: Complex network of nuclei (masses of gray matter) and fibers that extend the length of brain stem. Receives sensory signals and sends them up to higher center, and motor signals, which it sends to spinal cord. (Mader 258-259)
III. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions: Intimately involved in our emotions and higher mental functions.
A. Linked structures in cerebrum that is a functional grouping rather than anatomical.
- Blends primitive emotions and higher mental functions.
1a. Amygdala: Within limbic system. Can cause experiences to have emotional overtones, and it creates the sensation of fear.
2a. Hippocampus: Plays crucial role in learning and memory. Information gateway during learning process.
B. Higher Mental Functions:
1b. Memory:
- Short-term memory: Prefrontal area. Lies dorsal to forehead.
- Long-term memory: Mixture of semantic memory (numbers, words, etc.) and episodic memory (persons, events, etc.)
- Skill memory: Involved in performing motor activities like riding a skateboard. All motor areas of cerebrum below the level of consciousness.
C. Long-Term Memory Storage and Retrieval: Long-term memory stores in bits and pieces throughout sensory association areas of cerebral cortex.
D. Long-Term Potentiation: Involved in memory storage. Occurs when synapses are used intensively for a short period of time, and they release more neurotransmitters. (Mader 260-261)
IV. The Peripheral Nervous System
A. Lies outside central nervous system, and contains the nerves. When they come from brain, they are cranial nerves. From spinal cord, they are spinal nerves.
- All nerves take impulses to and from the CNS. All are composed of axons, the long part of neurons.
(Insert Nerve picture / fig.cox.miami.edu / http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~lfarmer/BIL265)
1a. Humans have 12 pairs of cranial nerves attached to brain. Some are sensory, some are motor, and others are mixed nerves that have both sensory and motor fibers.
- Cranial nerves are most concerned with head, neck and facial regions.
2a. Spinal nerves: 31 pairs from either side of spinal cord.
- Roots separate the axons of sensory neurons from axons of motor neurons.
- Dorsal Root Ganglion: Cell body of a sensory neuron. Ganglion: Collection of cell bodies outside the CNS.
- All spinal nerves are mixed nerves, and each spinal nerve serves the particular region of the body.
B. Somatic System: These nerves serve the skin, skeletal muscles, and tendons.
- Some nerves take sensory info from external sensory receptors to the CNS and motor commands away from it to the skeletal muscles.
- In somatic system, some responses to stimulus are not voluntary, but automatic. These are called reflexes.
C. The Reflex Arc: The path of a reflex.
- A series of responses occur when interneurons carry nerve impulses to the brain.
- The brain makes you aware of the stimulus and directs other reactions to it. In fact, you don't even feel pain until the brain receives and interprets info.
D. Autonomic System: Also in PNS. Regulates the activity of cardiac and smooth muscles and glands.
- Divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Activation of these two systems generally causes opposite responses.
- Both have different functions, but also similarities: Both function automatically and in an involuntary manner, they innervate all internal organs, and they utilize two neurons and one ganglion for each impulse.
1d. Sympathetic Division: Most arise from the middle of the spinal cord and almost immediately terminate in ganglia that are near the cord.
- In this division, the preganglionic fiber is short, and the postganglionic fiber that makes contact with an organ is long.(Mader 264-265)
- Important in emergency situations: Speed up (“fight or flight”) response. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22)
2d. Parasympathetic Division: Includes a few cranial nerves and fibers that come from the bottom (sacral) portion of the spinal cord.
-Pregangliotic fiber is long, and the postganglionic fiber is short because the ganglia lie near or within the organ.
- Promotes all internal responses we associate with a relaxed state. (Mader 265) "Slow down (“meditative”) response". (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22) (The "rest and digest" system.)
(Insert Comparison of Somatic Motor and Autonomic Motor Pathway picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22)
E. Degenerative Brain Disorders
1e. Alzheimer Disease: Characterized by loss of memory. Usually occurs in those over 65. Abnormal neurons are present throughout the brain but mostly in hippocampus and amygdala. Neurons end up dying.
2e. Parkinson Disease: Gradual loss of memory control. Wide-eyed, unblinking expression, involuntary tremors of fingers, muscular rigidity, and a shuffle. (Mader 266)
V. Drug Abuse
A. Drugs affect nervous system in two general affects:
- Affecting the limbic system,
- Either promote or decrease the action of a particular neurotransmitter.
- Stimulants: increase likelihood of neuron excitation.
- Depressants: decrease likelihood of neuron excitation.
B. Drug Abuse: Taking a drug at a dose level and under circumstances that increase the potential for a harmful effect. Psychological and physical dependence.
C. Alcohol: Readily crosses cell membranes.
- Causes damage to several tissues and vital organs. Liver can become scarred and impaired. Can damage frontal lobe of brain, decrease overall brain size, and increase size of ventricles. Brain damage, coma and death can occur if blood alcohol level is extremely high.(Mader 267)
D. Nicotine: small molecule, stimulant. Rapidly deliverd to CNS, especially midbrain. Binds to neurons in CNS, it increases skeletal muscle activity, heart rate, and blood pressure. Highly addictive.
E. Cocaine: Stimulant that interferes with the "re-uptake of dopamine at synapses". Highly addictive. Results in sleeplessness, lack of appetite, increased sex drive, tremors, and "cocaine psychosis", which is like paranoid schizophrenia. Can result in cardiac and /or respiratory arrest, and death.
F. Methamphetamine: Synthetic. Stimulant. Reverses effects of fatigue, maintains wakefulness, and elevates the mood of the user. Can lead to amphetamine psychosis resulting in paranoia, hallucinations, aggressive behavior.
G. Heroin: From sap of opium poppy. Highly addictive depressent. Pain-killing effects. Depress breathing, block pain pathways, cloud mental function, and can cause nausea and vomiting.
H. Marijuana: Mild euphoria, alterationsin vision and judgment. Hallucinations, anxiety, depression, rapid flow of ideas, body image distortions, paranoia, and psychotic symptoms can result. (Mader 268-269)

Self and Unit Evaluation

2008-06-27T11:45:00.000-07:00

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am most proud of the thoroughness of my compendium reviews, the quiz that I did well on, and the lab projects that I put quite a bit of time into.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? The quiz I did NOT do well on, and increased absorption of material from the compendium reviews.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? A- I still worked my tooshy off. :)

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? I need to review material more thoroughly, and take more time doing so, before I take the quizzes.

REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I loved the online labs and lab project. I thought they were very interesting and I learned a great deal about blood pressure, etc.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
Again, when I was doing the compendium reviews.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? I had online conversations with other students who helped me with certain questions I had. I appreciated them taking the time to help me out.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? None. I truly can't remember any at all.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.) The actual data from my lab project surprised me, at times. I had expected different end results when it came down to some of the activities I participated in for the final lab project.

Exercise Physiology Lab

2008-06-25T16:08:00.000-07:00

Note: When I created this in word first, my sole intention was to make a nice, neat chart for my data table, which I did. Of course, it wouldn't transfer, again, so the table below is not half as nice and organized as it was to begin with.) :(

Metabolic Measurements Graph

Activity 3: Trampoline

Activity 2: Vacuuming (Sorry it's blurry!)

"Activity" 1: Sleeping

Method of taking my blood pressure / respiration: borrowed machine from my dad!
Metabolic Rate Lab Project
I. Introduction: My task for this lab was to measure my metabolic rates in several different situations. First, I needed to get a baseline reading of my respiration, pulse, and blood pressure. Once I had done this 3 times, I averaged the three readings to get a mean. I was to then decide on three activities I would participate in, and create hypotheses as to how I think those readings would be affected upon completion of each activity. Before I get into my hypotheses, I would like to present a quick review of how the circulatory system in relation to these readings.
When blood leaves the heart, it surges into the arteries. This surge makes their elastic walls stretch from the pressure exerted, but they almost immediately return to their normal state. This happens very rhythmically, and it can actually be felt in the form of a pulse. A person can feel this pulse by gently placing his or her fore and middle fingers on the outer border of the palm side of the wrist. So, the pulse itself is actually a measurement of the heart’s rate of beating. Normal pulse rate ranges between 60 and 80 beats per minute. Respiration is the number of breaths a person takes per minute.
Blood pressure is the pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel. The instrument used to measure a person’s blood pressure is called a sphygmomanometer. There are two measurements to be taken in regards to blood pressure: the systolic pressure, and the diastolic pressure. Systolic pressure is a measurement of the ejection of blood from the heart. This is the “highest” arterial pressure. In contrast, the lowest arterial pressure is the diastolic pressure. This happens when the heart ventricles are relaxing. Normal resting blood pressure for an adult is between 95 and 135 (systolic) / 50-90 (diastolic). High blood pressure is said to be hypertension, while low blood pressure is called hypotension.
Hypertension is extremely dangerous. When blood moves through the arteries at a higher pressure than normal, it can cause a heart attack, stroke, or even kidney failure. High blood pressure is linked to atherosclerosis, which is a disease in which plaque builds up in the lumen of the blood vessel and this interferes with the flow of blood. Stroke, heart attack, and aneurysm are also associated with high blood pressure. A stroke happens when a small cranial arteriole bursts or is blocked by an embolus (clot in the blood). Lack of oxygen causes a portion of the brain to die, and it results in paralysis or death. A heart attack occurs when a portion of the heart muscle dies due to a lack of oxygen. Finally, an aneurysm is a ballooning of a blood vessel, most often the abdominal artery or an artery leading to the brain. There are several things that contribute to high blood pressure, such as a diet high is salt, genetics, age, lifestyle (lack of exercise), and weight.
2. My Hypotheses: I always found it very interesting that my father, even at rest, has incredible “swings” in his blood pressure. So, for my lab, I decided to do three activities that varied in the amount of energy I was expending. I had been told by a physician once that your basal body temperature is lowest right before you get out of bed in the morning. I wanted to see if the same was true for blood pressure. So, because I took my “resting” measurements in the middle of the day, I decided to track my blood pressure , pulse, and respiration when I first wake in the morning. My first hypothesis, then, is that my pulse, respiration rate, and blood pressure will be lower / lowest in the morning, just before leaving bed. I then wanted to find and “intermediate” activity that would allow me to expend an intermediate level of energy. I chose vacuuming my house.  My first reason was because my vacuum is extremely heavy, and I know that I expend energy maneuvering it around the house to vacuum several rooms. Hypothesis #2 was that my pulse, respiration and blood pressure would increase during this activity. Finally, to expend a good deal of energy to see how it affects my metabolism, I decided to jump on our trampoline for ten minutes. Hyposthesis #3: My pulse, respiration, and blood pressure would all increase and be at their highest during this activity, when I was exerting the most energy.
3. Materials and Methods: Please see pictures above with corresponding captions.
4. Metabolic Rate Data Table
Rep 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Rep 4 Rep 5 MEAN
Baseline
Pulse 84 73 77 76 76 77
Respiration 24 24 22 26 28 25
Systolic 108 102 110 106 108 107
Diastolic 67 83 64 73 69 71
Sleeping
Pulse 76 76 75 76
Respiration 24 22 24 23
Systolic 111 110 110 110
Diastolic 63 54 60 59
Vacuuming
Pulse 84 94 95 91
Respiration 26 26 26 26
Systolic 124 120 128 124
Diastolic 110 102 78 97
Trampoline
Pulse 102 105 103 103
Respiration 40 40 40 40
Systolic 126 136 134 132
Diastolic 66 80 76 74

(Since pictures will not insert in the correct places in this blog, please see above for my graph of each activity and my metabolic measurements.)
5. Analysis of Data
Hypothesis 1: My pulse, respiration rate, and blood pressure will be lower / lowest in the morning, just before leaving bed.
Results: Half correct, half incorrect! With my mean being 110/59, my diastolic measurement was the lowest of all activities, including my baseline measurements, but my systolic number was 3 points higher than my baseline systolic measurement. Even so, the systolic number WAS lower than when I was vacuuming and when I jumped on the trampoline. My respiration was also the lowest of all other activities (including baseline), so my hypothesis was correct in this regard, as well.
Hypothesis 2: My pulse, respiration and blood pressure would increase during the vacuuming of several rooms of my house, and be the second highest of the four.
Results: My hypothesis was correct! With the mean being 124/97, both numbers were higher than my baseline and from when I first wake up in the morning. My respiration was also higher.
Hypothesis 3: My pulse, respiration, and blood pressure would all increase and be at their highest during the last activity: jumping on the trampoline for 10 minutes.
Results: Half correct, half incorrect! While my systolic measurement was the highest of all activities at 132, (which would make part of the hypothesis correct), I was shocked to learn that my diastolic number was actually LOWER than it was when I was vacuuming. In fact, it was significantly lower. (97 vacuuming and 74 on the trampoline.) My respiration was the highest of all activities, so my hypothesis was correct in this regard.
6. Problems with Your Data or Technique: At first, I figured the blood pressure machine must have malfunctioned or something, I considered re-doing all three repetitions on the trampoline, but then I remembered Professor Frolich’s words: “Be true to your data”. The machine wouldn’t have malfunctioned all three times, and my numbers were pretty comparable, overall, so I am going with them. Then, I tried to figure out reasons why the lower number would be off like that. I thought that it may be possible that I actually “worked” harder pushing the vacuum around than I did jumping. I think that it is different kinds of “work”. Jumping on the trampoline is great for getting your pulse and respiration up, but it really isn’t that difficult. However, pushing the vacuum around is actually a little strenuous! (I know… it sounds ridiculous.) But really, the machine itself is very, very heavy. It is not easy to maneuver, and I have several rooms in my house that get vacuumed in one “session”. I also wondered if heat affects your blood pressure in any way. When I was jumping on the trampoline, it was evening; there was a breeze outside and it was actually nice. However, when I was vacuuming my house, it was about 80 degrees and I was holding my 1 year old daughter during parts of it. I’m not sure, but I guess it may be possible that I was actually exerting more energy during this activity. All in all, I don’t know why the results were different than I expected, but my overall hypothesis was only half correct. Same goes for my diastolic measurement being higher than my baseline reading for the activity of sleep. For the life of me, I can’t figure that one out. ?
7. In conclusion, I think that, for the most part, the more energy you are exuding, the higher the body’s metabolic rate. I know that my last hypothesis wasn’t altogether proven, but as I’ve said, I’ve also seen my father’s blood pressure change fairly dramatically in a small amount of time without him even moving! There may have been other factors going on with my body that I’m not even aware would change my readings. I jumped on the trampoline on different days, too, so it wasn’t even a one time “thing” that was affecting those readings. I find this discrepancy in my “research” confusing, overall.
In order for our bodies to get the oxygen they need, air is breathed in, and it moves into the lungs through the bronchial tubes until it enters air sacs called alveoli. This diffuses into blood capillaries and then enters the circulatory system. The first thing that receives oxygen in the body is the heart. The veins in the heart then carry carbon dioxide to the lungs to be exhaled. Next, the arteries in the lungs carry the oxygen rich blood to the cells within the hemoglobin. It makes sense to me, then, that when you are exercising, or participating in any activity that requires the expenditure of energy, your heart beats faster. Your respiration increases, because your body is trying to get more oxygen to the cells. Because of both of these things, blood pulses through the arteries faster and harder, and therefore, your metabolic rates increase.

Ethical Issues Essay: Food and Nutrition

2008-06-24T17:13:00.001-07:00

Unit 2 Ethical Issues Essay
“Each year, 76 million Americans get sick and 5,000 die from food borne illnesses” (From “FoodRoutes”). In addition, approximately 34% of adults today are obese. The number of people who suffer from cardiovascular disease and Type 2 diabetes continues to climb. All of these facts point to the reality that, in general, Americans are not eating a well-balanced, healthy diet. I’m sure that there are a multitude of reasons for this. In today’s society, people are extremely busy. An average family has two working parents, and children who not only go to school, but are involved in a plethora of extracurricular activities. Imagine a day in the life the typical “soccer mom”: wake up, get kids ready for school, drive to school, go to work, work 8-hr shift, rush home, bring “Joe” to soccer and “Jane” to piano lessons, pick kids up, drive home. Only SuperMom would have the energy after a day like this to go out to her home-grown garden, pick some beautiful, fresh vegetables, then go in to make a lovely and delicious home-cooked meal. So, what happens? Pre-packaged, frozen , fast food, microwavable meals. It’s a matter of convenience in a fast-paced world. A lack of exercise is also a major factor in the nutrition dilemma, and again, I’m sure there are different reasons people choose not to exercise.
Perhaps another reason Americans find it difficult to eat well-balanced meals is because of the conflicting information we receive from the supposed experts about what really is healthy or unhealthy for us. We shouldn’t eat too much meat because of saturated fats. So, as Michael Pollan points out, Americans react by not eating as much meat, but they then load up on carbs, not necessarily understanding that carbs are probably worse for them than the meat! What happens next? The Atkins diet emerges, and people cling desperately to that diet in order to find a way to shed the pounds they gained from eating all the carbs. Feels pretty cyclical, to me. In addition, many Americans are uninformed when it comes to a healthy diet. I, for example, had no idea how many calories were in the foods that I eat regularly until I used the Mind, Body, Soul calculator and saw it right in front of me.
What are we actually eating? In the 1980’s, the “Age of nutritionism” began. Food began being re-engineered to contain the nutrients that we supposedly so desperately need. This is good for business, because even unhealthy foods could be engineered to become healthy. (I truly appreciated this point make by Mr. Pollan, when he mentioned that Cocoa Puffs have been engineered to contain whole grains.) Something about this whole idea makes me shudder; I’d much rather eat something that was naturally high in whole grains rather than junk-food engineered to be that way.
I do not believe that the common, average family eats to be culturally and spiritually satisfied. In complete honesty, I don’t think people care enough about food to eat in such a manner. Most people eat to fill the whole that is either hunger-related or psychological. For many, food has become a crutch; some find comfort in food when they are feeling depressed. Others will eat anything that tastes good when they are hungry, regardless of how good it is for them. Many eat conveniently, as mentioned above, because they do not have the energy to cook for spiritual or cultural reasons. I’m probably a prime example of this, because as embarrassing as it is to say, I don’t even “get” what eating to satisfy the spirit even means! My family and I do not cook food that is important to our culture. We cook food that we enjoy eating, and as often as I can, I try and make sure there is nutritional value in what we put in our mouths. In fact, I can say with pride that my daughters are the only 1 and 3 year olds I know who enjoy eating their vegetables. However, I would be lying if I said that I wasn’t the “soccer mom” I described above whom sometimes relies on whatever is fast and easy before I collapse from exhaustion.
I read the article entitled, “Live the Slow Life with Food.” I could appreciate the concept of “slow food”, i.e. coming together as a food community, connecting producers and co-producers, supporting the local farmers… enjoying good, clean food. As much as I can enjoy the idea, I think that it is not a common occurrence for a simple reason: it is unrealistic. In this day and age, in my town, people don’t come together for much of anything, let alone to share a meal. (Sad, but true.) People tend to do what is most convenient, not what is necessarily best. Should we take the time to enjoy life with family and friends, as suggested in this article, through food? Absolutely! But how do we usually do that? By meeting at a restaurant and sharing a meal that we have no idea where it came from or who produced it. Or, we do it in the privacy of our own homes with home-cooked meals that we get from the grocery store, and again, have no idea where the ingredients actually originated. I just think that, for most people, they truly don’t care where the food came from. Again, in the interest of being completely honest, I have to say that when I read the suggestions this article made as to how to live the “slow” life, I laughed out loud when I processed the following two statements: 1. Make pasta from scratch. (Kiddin’ me?! I can hardly cook chicken for my family without retching (vegetarian) and burning it… make my own pasta?! WHEN?) And 2., (and I quote) “Try seductively squeezing your own orange juice…” ? Only a true food enthusiast would find squeezing orange juice seductive. I can hardly even relate the two, but I do find it amusing. As I’ve said, I just don’t think people care enough about food to find anything sensual in squeezing juice out of an orange. (Not that I don’t think food can be sensual, but squeezing orange juice?!)
So, now that I’ve gone ahead and labeled myself as one of those who doesn’t necessarily care about food, let me say that I do care about what my family and I ingest. If I had a choice, I would love to grow my own vegetables, or buy them at the local farmers market to support my immediate economy. However, I’ve been to our farmer’s market, and it is not a “little” more expensive than my friendly, neighborhood Safeway, it is ridiculously more expensive. I know that my family cannot spend that much more money on local food than I would at Safeway: not in today’s economy. Yes, the taste and freshness would be exceptional, I’m sure. My mother had a HUGE garden when we were kids and my siblings and I spent hours and hours picking the fresh fruits and vegetables and we enjoyed them constantly… even unwashed, polished off on our clothes, still warm from the sun while sitting in the garden. I loved the foods we were fortunate enough to eat from our own soil. But in reality, I don’t live in the suburbs of New York anymore, with naturally rich soil and an endless supply of water. Instead, I live in a desert, with dry, nutrient-deficient soil and a well that can hardly sustain the normal every day activities of my family and me, never mind if I tried to water a garden. Do I understand that the produce I buy from Safeway may spend 7-14 days in transit before I can even purchase them? Yes. But I also know that they are usually delicious, and I take pride in getting my kids to eat vegetables at all, so I’m happy to get them from Safeway, where I can afford them. FoodRoutes says to, “Pay for taste, not packaging!”, which is a brilliant idea, if taste and packaging were in the same pricing realm. But as it is, the price I pay for packaging is a great deal less than what I would pay for taste at the Farmer’s Market. As one who grew up on a farm with a farming family, I would be the first to want to support our local farmers, and in turn our local economy. As soon as it becomes affordable to my family, I will do that. Would I be comforted to know that we were not ingesting any pesticides by buying only organic foods? Of course! I’ve actually been made fun of before for washing my vegetables with a special soap made just for that purpose. But again, soap is cheaper than the organic foods on the shelves at Safeway. I truly hope that I don’t sound like I’m making excuses, or falling back on the old “money” excuse. But, when two people work their tails off to make ends meet every single day, it is necessary to make your dollar go as far as you possibly can.
I guess I don’t really know what the answer to our nutritional dilemma is. I know that if there was enough money to go around, I would buy locally, and support our local farmers. I would enjoy and appreciate the food I was eating for its freshness, and I would take comfort in knowing exactly where my food came from. Plus, if I became sick from a food-borne illness, I’d know whose butt to go kick. But for now, I have to say that I enjoy the fruits and vegetables that we get from Safeway, that we can afford. I think the key is that people need to concern themselves with what they are eating, if we are to hope to stop the trend of cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, etc. They need to educate themselves as to what kind of eating habits are causing these diseases, and how to eat a healthy diet to avoid them. More fruits, more vegetables, more whole grains, less meat, less carbs… etc. I know that, if nothing else, this focus on food and nutrition has made me more aware of the importance of paying attention to what we choose to put in our mouths. If everyone did this, surely our overall health would improve.

A Day of Food Lab

2008-06-22T19:28:00.001-07:00

-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?
To be honest, I thought this was a pretty healthy diet! Granted, I have to admit I was truly behaving myself knowing I was posting this somewhere the whole world could see. :) I actually do eat this kind of diet regularly, though, being a vegetarian. I do think it is healthy, because it consists mostly of vegetables, with some fruit.
-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything? I would switch out the pasta for whole grain pasta.
-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not?
I do find it helpful, and actually, because of all of this nutrition "stuff", I am paying better attention to what my family and I are eating. It is helpful to me because I can actually see the calories I am ingesting. It makes me more conscious of my food choices.

Blood Pressure Lab

2008-06-21T20:16:00.000-07:00

Megan Yakovich
Blood Pressure Lab
1. State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
* The wording of this question is confusing to me... "state a problem"? I'm not exactly sure what this is asking me.
To the best of my ability: I think a "problem" about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure is:
- Age: As a person's age increases, their blood pressure will increase.
- Gender: I'm truly not sure. I would think it has less to do with gender than it does with lifestyle choices, heredity, etc. But if I have to guess, I suppose I would guess that males have higher blood pressure than females, in general.
2. Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
I hypothesize that, as a person ages, his or her blood pressure would increase. This is because many people tend to become less active as they age, and exercise is vital to the health of the heart and circulatory system. They also tend to pick up "bad" habits that they did not have when they were young, such as smoking and drinking.
Gender: Again, I truly don't know how gender affects blood pressure. On average, do more men drink than women? I don't know, but if so, it would make sense that their blood pressure would be higher. ??
Which gender, in general, tends to exercise more? I would guess women… but I don’t even know why.  If one were to assume this were true, women would have lower blood pressure than men.
3. How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
I don’t know, because I don’t even know how the experiment works yet! I don’t know what steps to follow or what data to record, because I haven’t seen how it works yet. I would assume that I will track the people’s blood pressures, and then document any details given to me about their lifestyles that would help me understand why they have the high blood pressure.
4. Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
The results of my experiment are that men do have higher blood pressure than women (in general), and blood pressure does seem to increase (in both sexes) as age increases. Interestingly enough, the only time that the group average for men was lower than the women’s average is in the age group of 11-17. In this age group, NO ONE, neither male or female had high blood pressure. However, the average blood pressure for the female group was 119/76, while the male group’s average was 117/75. In this particular group, when I looked at each medical history of every subject, both groups had only 1 person each who had a history of hypertension and lack of exercise. The only difference was that the female group also had one person with a high salt diet.
Every other age group, from 18-54, showed that men had higher blood pressure than women. In the 18-24 age group, only two females showed hypertension. One (24 years) had a family history of hypertension and a high salt diet, but was only 3 pounds overweight. The other female (19 years) had a family history of hypertension and a lack of exercise, but was also 36 pounds overweight. The men in the same age group also showed two people as having hypertension. The first, 18, was 44 lbs overweight, exhibited a lack of exercise, and drank alcohol. The other, 19 years, was only 3 lbs overweight, but had the family history, a high salt diet, and a lack of exercise. The 25-34 age group, I didn’t have a single woman with high blood pressure, which I found very hard to believe. For the same age group, I had 2 men with high blood pressure. Both had a family history of hypertension and were significantly overweight (by 50+ pounds.) Age group 35-44: two females, 3 males. Interestingly, neither of the females were overweight. In fact, the 39 year old drank alcohol, but had no other “predispositions”. The second only exhibited a lack of exercise. As for the men in this age group, two were significantly overweight. The third was only 4 lbs over his optimal weight, but had the hereditary hypertension and a high salt diet. He was also older than the other two men. 45-54: 3 females exhibited hypertension. Two were significantly overweight, and one exhibited 3 of the 4 “components” linked to high blood pressure. In the male group, there were actually 7 in this age group to have hypertension. 4 of the 7 were significantly overweight. I found it very interesting that one subject, a 46 year old man who was actually 5 lbs underweight exhibited high blood pressure when his only factor was drinking alcohol.
5. Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
Yes, my hypothesis was supported. The older you get, the higher your blood pressure, in general. Also, even though I was just guessing in the beginning, it seems that men do in fact have higher blood pressure than women.
6. During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Yes, there were some who were outside the normal range in both sexes. Their medical charts showed that there are 6 factors that are directly linked to high blood pressure: weight, age, family history of hypertension, amount of salt in diet, amount of exercise, and alcohol consumption. It seemed to me that weight and age may have been the factors most contributing to high blood pressure.
7. List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
Please see last question.
8. What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Again, please see above. Yes, obesity is a huge factor in blood pressure. I found that it could cause hypertension by itself. The other factors that can contribute are listed under question 6.

Compendium Review Chapter 8

2008-06-21T10:19:00.000-07:00

Food Pyramid

Water-Soluble Vitamins Chart

Fat-Soluble Vitamins Chart

Minerals Chart

Large Intestine 2

Large Intestine 1

Liver

Villi and Microvilli

Small Intestine

Stomach Anatomy

Pharynx and Esophagus

Gastrointestinal Tract

I. Overview of Digestion
II. First Part of Digestive Tract
III. Stomach and Small Intestine
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
V. The Large Intestine and Defacation
VI. Nutrition and Weight Control

I. Overview of Digestion
A. Organs are in gatrointestinal tract.
(Insert gastrointestinal tract picture / www.psych.upenn.edu / http://www.psych.upenn.edu/courses/psych127_Spring2002/notes.html)
B. Purpose of Digestion: To hydrolyze macromolecules (carbs, fats, and proteins) to their unit molecules (mainly sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol) so they can pas through plasma membranes. These nutrients are carried by the blood to our cells. (Mader 144)
C. What do our cells need?
1c. Oxygen for cell respiration to make ATP. ATP is used for cell metabolism.
- "Glucose is the main substrate, or chemical that gets “burned” or combined with oxygen in cellular respiration." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4)
- Glucose diffuses through a special protein pore on the cell membrane
- Insulin is a protein secreted by the pancreas into the blood, usually following a meal.
- Insulin stimulates cells to take up glucose and either store it (as glycogen in liver and muscle) or use it in cellular metabolism
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
D. Processes Necessary to the Digestive Process:
1d. Ingestion: Mouth takes in food.
2d. Digestion: Mechanical or chemical.
- Mechanical: Occurs when food is divided into pieces that can be digested by enzymes. (Cutting up our food helps mechanical digestion. Occurs in mouth and stomach.
- Chemical: Digestive enzymes hydrolyze particular foods to molecular nutrients. Begins in mouth and is not complete until food reaches small intestine.
- Chyme: Thick, semifluid mass of partly digested food that goes from stomach to small intestine.
3d. Movement of GI tract contents alone digestive tract.
4d. Absorption: Unit molecules made by digestion go theough the wall of the GI tract and enter the cells that line the tract. From there, nutrients enter blood so they can be brought to cells.
5d. Elimination: Molecules that are not digested are removed from body through anus. (Mader 144-145)
E. Wall of Digestive Tract
1e. Lumen: Central space that contains water (food being digested). (The hose)
2e. Wall of tract has 4 layers:
- First layer, next to lumen: Mucosa (AKA Mucous Membrane): Produces mucus that protects the wall from digestive enzymes inside the lumen.
* Possible disorder: Diverticulosis: Portions of mucosa have pushed through the layers and formed pouches, where food has the ability to collect. Pouches can become infected or inflamed.
- Second layer: Submucosa: Broad band of loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. These vessels carry the nutrients absorbed by mucosa.
* Possible disorder: Inflammatory bowel disease: Because the submucosa contains blood vessels, inflammatory response may occur, leading to inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms: chronic diarrhea, fever, weight loss, and abdominal pain.
- Third layer: Muscularis: Two layers of smooth muscle. These muscles contract to move food from the esophagus to the anus.
* Possible disorder: Irritable bowel syndrome: Contractions of wall cause pain in the abdomen, constipation and / or diarrhea.
- Fourth layer: Serosa: A serous membrane that secretes a serous fluid. Part of the peritoneum, the internal lining of the abdominal cavity.
* Possible disorder: Appendicitis: Inflamed appendix. Peritonitis: Life-threatening infection of peritoneum. (Mader 145)
II. First Part of the Digestive Tract
A. Mouth, pharyns, and esophagus.
1a. Mouth: Receives food and beegins mechanical and chemical digestion.
- Roof of mouth separates the nasal cavities from the oral cavity. Has two parts: Anterior (toward front)hard palate (bone), and Posterior (toward back) soft palate (muscle).
2a. Three pairs of salivary glands: 1st: Lies at side of face just below and in front of ears. These are the ones that swell when someone is sick. 2nd: Beneath the tongue. 3rd: Beneath floor of oral cavity.
3a. Salivary Amylase: Enzyme in saliva that begins process of digesting starch.
B. Teeth and Tongue: Chewing = mechanical digestion.
1b. Teeth have two divisions: crown and root.
* Dental Caries: Tooth decay / cavities. Bacteria within mouth metabolize sugar and produce acids, which erode teeth. Gum disease is linked to cardiovascular disease!
2b. Tongue: Covered by mucous membrane, which contains sensory receptors called taste buds. When a person eats, the food activates nerve impulses to travel through nerves to the brain.
- Tongue is skeletal muscle.
- Bolus: the mass of food that is formed by the tongue for swallowing.
C. Pharynx and Esophagus: Both mouth and nasal passages lead to a cavity called the pharynx.
1c. Trachea is anterior to (in front of) the esophagus, a long tube whose purpose it only to move food to the stomach.
(Insert pharynx and esophagus picture / www.discovercreation.org / http://www.discovercreation.org/newlet/autumn%202004.htm)
2c. Swallowing: voluntary phase. Food enters esophagus, soft palate moves back to close off nasal passages, and the trachea moves up under the epiglottis to cover the glottis (and opening to the larynx, and therefore, air passage).
3c. Peristalsis: Rhythmic contraction that pushes food along esophagus and in all organs of the digestive tract.
4c. Sphincters: Muscles that are around tubes and act as valves; when sphincters contract, tubes close, and open when sphincters relax again. When something is swallowed, the sphincter relaxes to allow food to pass from the esophagus into the stomach before closing again.
* Heartburn: Stomach's contents escape into esophagus. (Mader 146-147)
III. Stomach and Small Intestine: Complete the digestion of food.
A. Stomach: Thick-walled, j-shaped organ that lies on left side of body under the diaphragm (a muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities).
1a. Linked with esophagus above and duodenum of small intestine below.
2a. Stores food, initiates digestion of protein, and controls the movement of chyme into the small intestine.
3a. Has four layers: Muscularis: Has three layers of smooth muscle: circular, longitudinal, and a layer of smooth muscle that runs obliquely to the other two.
- Oblique layer: Allows stomach to stretch and mechanically break down food to mix with gastric juice.
4a. Mucosa of Stomach: deep folds. Rugae: disappears when stomach capacity is full.
5a. Gastric glands: Produce gastric juice, containing enzyme called pepsin, which digests protein, hydrochloric acid, and mucus.
6a. Food leaves stomach when chyme enters the small intestine in squirts. (Mader 148-149)
(Insert stomach anatomy picture /www.rivm.nl / http://www.rivm.nl/interspeciesinfo/intra/human/stomach)
B. Small Intestine: Named for its small diameter, but is very long! Approx. 18 ft in length.
(Insert small intestine picture / instruct.westvalley.edu / http://instruct.westvalley.edu/granieri/biology15coursepage.html)
1b. Digestion is completed in the small intestine.
2b. Contains enzymes to digest all types of foods. Enzymes are secreted by pancreas and enter via a duct at the duodenum, the first 25 cm of small intestine.
3b. Bile: Mechanically breaks down fact by emulsifying it, which causes fat droplets to disperse in water. A duct brings bile from the liver and gallbladder into the duodenum.
4b. Lipase: Present in pancreatic juice. Hydrolicizes fat to glycerol and fatty acids.
5b. Pancreatic amylase begins and an intestinal enzyme finishes the digestion of carbohydrates to glucose.
6b. Pancreatic trypsin begins and an intestinal enzyme finishes the digestion of proteins to amino acids.
C. Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. The products of the digestive process are absorbed in the wall of the small intestine: sugars, amino acids (only additional nutrients that body can’t produce) (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 9)
, fatty acids, and glycerol.
1c. Villi: Fingerlike projections in the mucosa of the small intestine. Microvilli: The cells in the outer layer of the villus are columnar epithelial cells, and each one has thousandss of microscopic extensions. Microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the villus for absorption of nutrients.
(Insert villi and microvilli picture / www.prmgcentral.com / http://www.prmgcentral.com/info/CellularNutrition.htm)
2c. Nutrients are absorbed in the vessels of a villus, which contains blood capillaries and a small lymphatic capillary called a lacteal.
- Sugars (digested from carbohydrates) and animo acids (digested from proteins) enter the blood capillaries of a villus. Glycerol and fatty acids (digested from fats) enter the epithelial cells of the villi, are packaged as lipoprotein droplets (chylomicrons), which enter a lacteal.
3c. After nutrients are absorved, they are carried to all cells of the body by the bloodstream.
D. Lactose Intolerance: Lactose: primary sugar in milk. Those who do not have the enzyme lactase cannot digest lactose, = lactose intolerance.
* Symptoms: diarrhea, gas, bloating, and abdominal cramps.
E. Obesity: Dibetes Type 2 and Cardiovascular Disease: Nutrients absorbed at the small intsetine have a serious effect on body.
1e. Too much saugar and fat can result in obesity, which is associated with both Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
2e. Healthy diet and physcial activity improves the ability of the hormone insulin to function properly in Type 2 diabetes. (Mader 151)
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
A. Pancreas: fish-shaped, spongy, grayish pink orgain that stretches across the back of the abdomen behind the stomach.
1a. Pancreatic juice (produced from pancreatic cells) enters the duodenum by way of the pancreatic duct. This juice has digestive enzymes for all types of food.
- Pancreatic Amylase: digests starch.
- Trypsin: digests protein.
- Lipase: Digests fat.
- Pancreas is also an endocrine gland that secretes hormone (substance made by one set of cells that affects the target cells) insulin into blood.
B. Liver: Largest, most metabolic gland in body. Lies mostly in the upper-right section of the abdominal cavity, under the diphragm. "The liver receives blood via the hepatic portal vein from the capillry bed of GI tract and filters blood in the capillaries of the lobules. Removes poisonous substances from blood and detoxifies them.
- Also stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12.
- As amino acids are changed into glucose, the liver combines their amino groups with CO2 and forms urea.
- Also makes plasma proteins and regulates the amount of cholesterol in the blood. (Mader 152-153)
(Insert liver picture / www.bupa.co.uk / http://www.bupa.co.uk/health_information/html/organ/liver.html )
- Feedback mechanism between liver and pancreas insure constant blood glucose level.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 7)
C. Bile is stored in gallbladder, which is located just below the liver.
* Gallstones: Form when liquid stored in gallbladder hardens into pieces of stonelike material.
* Liver Disorders:
- Jaundice: Bile pigments leak into blood.
- Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver.
- Cirrhosis: Liver becomes fatty, and then liver tissue is replaced by inactive fibrous scar tissue. (Often seen in alcoholics.)
D. Regulation of Digestive Secretions: Controlled by nervous system and digestive hormones. (Mader 152-153)
V. The Large Intestine and Defecation
A. Large intestine: cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. Larger in diameter than small intestine, shorter in length.
1a. Cecum: Lies below the junction with the small intestine.
2a. Veriform Appendix: Small projection of cecum.
3a. Colon: Includes the ascending colon, the transvere colon, and the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon (enters the rectum). Rectum opens at anus = defecation.
B. Functions of Large Intestine: Absorbs water, preventing dehydration. Does NOT produce digestive enzymes and does NOT absorb nutrients.
1b. Absorbs vitamins produced by bacteria called the intestinal flora.
2b. Bacteria in large intestine break down indigestible material, and produce B complex vitamins and most of the vitamin K.
3b. Forms feces, and allows for defecation. This helps regulate homeostasis.
C. Disorders of the Colon and Rectum:
* Diarrhea, constipation, diverticulosis, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory disease, and polyps and cancer. (Mader 154-155)
(Insert large intestine picture / www.uco.es / http://www.uco.es/investiga/grupos/eatco/automatica/ihm/ejemplosvrml/Anatomia/HTML/largeIntestine.html)
VI. Nutrition and Weight Control
A. Obesity: Being grossly overweight. Doubled in the US in 20 years. Great concern, because body fat is associated with higher risk for premature death, deabetes type 2, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, repiratory disfunction, osteoarthrities, and certain types of cancers.
- To reverse it, eat fewer calories, be more active, and make wise food choices.
B. Classes of Nutrients: Nutrients: A component of food that performs a physiological funcion of the body. Provide us with energy, promote growth and development, and regulate cellular metabolism.
1b. Carbohydrates: Either simple or complex.
- Glucose: Simple sugar preferred by body as an energy source. Brain cells require glucose.
- Products made from refined grains should be minimized, because during refinement, fiber and vitamins and minerals are removed, leaving mostly starch. Believed to be a major cause of obesity. Also have a high glycemic index, because the blood glucose response the these foods is high.
C. Proteins: Digested to amino acids, needed by cells to synthesize hundreds of cellular proteins.
- Essential Amino Acids: 8 of the 20. Found in eggs, milk products, meat, poultry, and most other foods derived from animals. 2 servings of meat / day is usually plenty.
- Proteins can be harmful if the the diet is severely limited, or if there is an overabundance.
D. Lipids: Fats, oils, and cholesterol.
- Plaque buildup in arteries is known to cause blockages and thus, cardiovascular disease.
E. Minerals: Divided into major minerals and trace minerals.
- Calcium: Major mineral needed to construction of bones and teeth, and for nerve conduction and muscle contraction.
* Osteoporosis: Degenerative bone disease.
- Sodium: Regulates the body's water balance.
(Insert minerals chart Frolich PowerPoint Slide 16)
- Complex carbohydrates: (beans, peas, nuts, fruits, and whole grain products) are recommended as a good source of vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
F. Vitamins: Organic compounds that the body uses for metabolic purposes but is unable to produce in enough quantity.
- many are portions of coenzymes, or enzyme helpers.
- Antioxidants: Vitamins C, E, and A are believed to defend the body against free radicals, and are termed antioxidants.
- Vitamin D: Vtiamin D leaves the skin and is modified first in the kidneys and then in the liver until if finally becomes calcitriol, which promotes the absorption of calcium by the large intestine. (Mader 160-162)
(Insert charts / water and fat-soluble vitamins / Frolich PowerPoint Slides 17-18)
G. Planning Nutritious Meals: A person needs calories for their basal metabolism, and for exercise.
- Limit the amount of calories to what you will use up each day.
- Eat a variety of foods each day.
- Foods from all food groups.
- Eat more vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and low-fat milk products.
- Eat less foods high in saturated fats, added sugars, cholesterol, salt, and alcohol.
- Be physically active everyday.
H. Eating Disorders
1h. Anorexia Nervosa: Severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat that causes one to refuse to eat.
2h. Bulimia Nervosa: A person binge-eats, and then purges to avoid gaining the weight.
3h. Muscle Dysmorphia: A person thinks his body is underdeveloped, There is a preoccupation with diest and body forming. (Mader 164-165)
I. What is healthy? Non-packaged; local; home-cooked; culturally-based; spiritually satisfying. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 24)
1i. How is food raised?
- Most food is no longer farmed, but factory-produced.
- Factory food production looks for maximum short and medium-term profit.
= Factory food production is unconcerned with long-term health of the consumer, or long-term productivity of the land.
- Factory food production is responsive only to government regulations, not to local prestige. Many people in the U.S. no long know where their food comes from, or even how food is grown and raised, or how to do it themselves.
- Small farmers survive by growing local prestige which comes from their concern for long-term health and satisfaction of the consumer and long-term productivity of the land. It is increasingly difficult for them to make a profit. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 27)
(Insert food pyramid picture / www.tqnyc.org / http://www.tqnyc.org/NYC063564)/nutrition.html

Compendium Review: AIDS Supplement

2008-06-20T19:56:00.000-07:00

Opportunistic Infections (Frolich PowerPoint)

Who is affected? (Frolich PowerPoint)

HIV Life Cycle

Structure of HIV

Virus Replication
I. Origin of and Prevalence of HIV
II. Phases of an HIV Infection
III. HIV Structure and Life Cycle

I. Origin of and Prevalence of HIV
A. HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus: The virus that causes AIDS.
B. AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
C. HIV infects and kills cells of the immune system, specifically helper T cells and macrophages. As the number of T cells decline, the body can't fight an infection, and the person becomes ill with various diseases.
D. Opportunistic Infection: One that has the opportunity to occur only when the immune system is really weakened.
E. History: Originated in Africa. First cases may have been in the 1950s. It is speculated that the disease originated in monkeys, and was transmitted to humans when humans ate the primates. 1969: First documented case in the US- a 15 year old boy. The name AIDS was created in 1982, when the disease became understood.
F. Prevalence of HIV: Pandemic, because the disease is prevalent in the entire human population all over the world.
- An estimated 36.3 million adults and 2.3 million children are living with HIV.
- Most people infected with HIV live in developing countries.
- Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia: represents 64% of all people living with HIV.
- Latin America and the Caribbean
- North America, Europe, and Central Asia
- North Africa and the Middle East
- Oceania (Mader 344-345)
II. Phases of an HIV Infection
A. HIV occurs as several subtypes: HIV-1B causes most infections in the US.
- Phases of HIV-1B: 1. Helper T cells and macrophages infected with HIV are called CD4 cells. When these are destroyed, the immune system is significantly impaired. One of the leading causes of AIDS related deaths in the US is Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, while in Africa, it is tuberculosis.
B. 1993: Centers for disease control issued guidelines for the classification of HIV. Three categories / Phases, based on the CD4 T cell count and the history of AIDS-defining illnesses.
1b. Category A: Acute Phase- Asymptomatic: No physical signs.
- Highly infectious.
- CD4 T cell count that has never fallen below 500 cells per mm3. Normal = 800.
- Immune system functions normally.
- In general, it takes about 25 days before there are detectable levels of HIV antibodies in body fluids.
2b. Category B: Chronic Phase
- CD4 count between 499 and 200 cells / mm3.
- One or more symptoms related to an impaired immune system: yeast infections of mouth or vagina, cervical dysplasia, prolonged diarrhea, thick sores on tongue, or shingles, amongst many others.
- Number of HIV particles is on the rise during this phase.
3b. Category C: AIDS- Diagnosis of AIDS occurs.
- CD4 T cell count has fallen below 200 cells / mm3 OR the individual has one or more of the 25 AIDS-defining illnesses.
- Persons with AIDS die from one of the following opportunistic diseases, not from the HIV infection itself:
- Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia- fungal infection of lungs.
- Myobacterium tuberculosis: a bacterial infection usually of lymph nodes or
lungs, but can be in other organs.
- Toxoplasmic encephalitis: Protozoan parasitic infection, often seen in brain.
- Kaposi's sarcoma: an unusual cancer of the blood vessels.
- Invasive cervical cancer: Spreads to nearby tissues.
C. Even though there is no cure for AIDS, many people are living longer because of the use of antiretroviral therapy. (Mader 346-347)
III. HIV Structure and Life Cycle
A. Consists of two single-strands of RNA, various proteins, and an envelope, which it takes from its host cell.
B. The virus's genetic material is protected by three protein coats: nucleocapsid, capsid, and the matrix. 1b. Within the matrix, there are three enzymes:
- Reverse transcriptase: Catalyzes reverse transcription, the conversion of the viral RNA to viral DNA.
- Integrase: Catalyzes the integration of viral DNA into the DNA of the host cell.
- Protease: Catalyzes the breakdown of newly synthesized viral polypeptides into functional viral proteins.
C. Protein spikers (Gp120) are found in the envelope of HIV, and are necessary for HIV to gain entry into its target immune cells.
D. HIV is a retrovirus: Uses reverse transcription to convert its RNA into viral DNA.
E. HIV Life Cycle (Reproductive Cycle of Virus)
1e. Attachment: HIV binds to plasma membrane of target cell. Gp120 (spike) binds to a CD4 receptor on surface of helper T cell or macrophage.
2e. Fusion: HIV fuses with plasma membrane; virus enters cell.
3e. Entry: Uncoating: the capsid and protein coats are removed, releasing RNA and viral proteins into cytoplasm of host cell.
4e. Reverse Transcription: Unique to retrovirus. Enzyme called reverse transcriptase catalyzes the conversion of HIV's single-stranded RNA to double-stranded viral DNA.
5e. Integration: Newly synthesized viral DNA , along with integrase, migrates into nucleus of host cell. Host cell's DNA is spliced, and then integrated by viral DNA into host cell's DNA, and HIV is provirus: now a part of cell's genetic material.
6e. Biosynthesis and Cleavage: Normal cell machinery directs the production of more viral RNA
7e. Assembly: Capsid proteins, viral enzymes, and RNA can now be assembled to form new viral particles.
8e. Budding: Virus gets its envelope and envelope marder coded for by viral genetic material.
(Insert HIV Life Cycle picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 31)
F. Transmission and Prevention of HIV
1f. Transmitted by sexual contact with an infected person, including vaginal or rectal intercourse and oral / genital contact. Also by needle-sharing among drug users. Also can be transmitted via blood transfusions. (Mader 348-349)
G. Prevention: Blood semen, vaginal fluid, and breast mile are body fluids known to have highest concentration of HIV. Not transmitted through casual contact.
2f. Abstinence
3f. Sex with only one uninfected partner.
4f. Condom use. (Mader 349)
G. Testing and Treatment
1g. HIV test does not test for the virus itself, it tests for the presence of HIV antibodies in the body.
2g. There is now hope, because therapy is available to control HIV replication and keep patients in the chronic phase much longer than before.
3g. Drug Therapy: Highly active antiretroviral therapy us usually able to stop HIV replciation to such an extent that the viral load becomes undetectable. However, if HAART is discontinued, the virus rebounds, so therapy is continued indefinitely.
4g. Vaccines: 2010: hoping to have a vaccine. (Mader 350)

Compendium Review Chapter 7

2008-06-19T15:30:00.000-07:00

(Note: Pictures are in "backwards" order.)

Multiple Sclerosis

Elimination of Invaders

Antibody Structure

T Cells

Spleen

Thymus Gland

Lymphatic System

Prions

Virus

Pathogens

Microbes

I. Microbes, Pathogens, and You
II. Lymphatic System
III. Nonspecific Defenses
IV. Specific Defenses
V. Acquired Immunity
VI. Hypersensitivity Reactions

I. Microbes, Pathogens, and You
A. Microbes: microscopic organisms, like bacteria) are all over the environment.
B. Many microbes are useful to humans: some bacteria produce food, and some drugs are produced by bacteria. They also break down materials.
(Insert microbes picture / www.sdnhm.org / http://www.sdnhm.org/exhibits/epidemic/teachers/museum-microbe.html)
C. However, human infectious diseases are typically caused by bacteria and viruses, called pathogens.
(Insert pathogens picture / ehp.niehs.nih.gov / http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2004/112-1/focus.html)
D. Body has three lines of defense against pathogens:
1. Barriers to entry (skin / mucous membranes of body cavities)block entry to body.
2. First Responders: ie. phagocytic white blood cells, prevent infection after an invasion.
3. Specific defenses overcome an infection by killing the particular disease-causing agent that has entered the body. (Also protect us against cancer.) (Mader 122)
E. Bacteria:
1e. Prokaryotic cells. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 19)Single-celled, no nucleus. Independent cells, metabolically competent.
2e. 3 Common Shapes: bacillus (rod), coccus (spherical), and spirillum (curved).
3e. Capsule: A thick, gummy substance that surrounds the cell wall of some bacteria, which allows the bacteria to stick to surfaces. Also prevents phagocytic white blood cells from destroying them.
4e. Flagellum: Long, very thin appendages on motile bacteria.
5e. Fimbriae: Stiff fibers that allow bacteria to adhere to surfaces such as host cells. Allows bacteria to cling to and gain access to the body.
6e. Pilus: Elongated hollow appendage used to transfer DNA from one cell to another.
7e. Plasmids: Accessory rings of DNA in bacteria. Oftentimes, this is where the genes that allow bacteria to be resistant to antibiotics are often located.
8e. Binary Fission: Method of reproduction for bacteria.
9e. Toxins: Inhibit cellular metabolism. (Mader 122-123)
F. Viruses: Viruses are escaped parts of genome or DNA of different organisms. They cannot live independent of the cells they escape from. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 19)
1f. Acellular: Not composed of cells. Much smaller than bacterium.
2f. Causes disease: cold, flu, measles, chicken pox, AIDS, polio, rabies, genital warts, and genital herpes.
3f. Always has two parts:
- Outer Cuspid: Composed of protein units.
- Inner Core: Nucleic acid.
4f. Carries the genetic information needed to reproduce itself. Relies on the host's enzymes and ribosomes for its own reproduction. (Mader 123)
(Insert virus picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 19)
5f. Emerging Viruses: A virus can emerge by being transported from one location to another where it has not been before.
- Others are transmitted by vectors (usually insects) that carry diseases from an infected individual to a healthy individual. Disease can also emerge when a mutation allows a virus to use a new and different insect vector.
- Viruses can also come about because of the immune system is unable to recognize a change in the virus. (ie. HIV) (Mader 124)
G. Prions: Proteinacious infectious particles that causes a group of degenerative diseases of the nervous system (AKA wasting diseases). (ie. mad cow disease)
- Transmitted by ingestion of brain and nerve tissues from infected animals. (Mader 124)
(Insert prions picture / www.news.utoronto.ca / http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin5/030602a.asp)
II. Lymphatic System: Consists of Lymphatic vessels and organs.
A. Closely associated w/ the cardiovascular system.
B. 4 main functions that contribute to homeostasis:
1. Lymphatic capillaries absorb extra fluid from tissues and return it to the bloodstream.
2. In the small intestines, lymphatic capillaries called lacteals absorb fats and transport them to bloodstream.
3. Lymphatic system is responsible for the production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes.
4. Helps defend the body against pathogens. (Mader 126)
(Insert lymphatic system picture / www.aikidofaq.com / http://www.aikidofaq.com/bilder/anatomy/Lymphatic.jpg.html)
C. Lymphatic Vessels: Form a one-way system of first, capillaries (side streets), then, vessels (streets), and then ducts (highways)that transport lymph to cardiovascular veins in the shoulder.
D. Lymph: Fluid inside lymphatic vessels.
E. Two ducts: Thoracic and Right Lymphatic.
- Thoracic: Returns lymph from the body below the thorax, the left arm, and left side of head and neck into the left subclavian vein.
- Right Lymphatic: Returns lymph from right arm and right side of head and neck into right subclavian vein.
F. Lymphatic Organs:
- Primary: Red bone marrow and thymus gland. Matures white blood cells.
- Secondary: Lymph nodes and spleen. Purify and protect the lymph and blood.
1f. Red Bone Marrow: Produces all types of blood cells, including neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes.
2f. Thymus gland: Located in thoracic cavity between the trachea and sternum, superior to heart.
- Two functions:
1. Produces thymic hormones that aid in the maturation of T lymphocytes.
2. Immature T lymphocytes move from bone marrow though bloodstream to thymus, where they mature. Critical to immunity. No T cells, no response to pathogens. (Mader 126-127)
(Insert thymus gland picture / www.pitt.edu / http://www.pitt.edu/~anat/Head/Thymus/Thymus.htm)
G. Secondary Lymphatic Organs: spleen, lymph nodes, and others.
1g. Spleen: Filters blood. Largest lymphatic organ. Located in upper left region of abdominal cavity posterior to the stomach. Connective tissue divides it into white pulp and red pulp:
- White pulp: ?
- Red pulp: Involved in blood filtering.
(Insert spleen picture / www.umm.edu / http://www.umm.edu/imagepages/9943.htmfiltering.)
H. Lymph Nodes: Occur along lymphatic vessels. Filter lymph.
1h. Divided into compartments, with each one containing a sinus that increases in size toward center of node.
2h. Lymphatic Nodules: Concentrations of lymphatic tissue not surrounded by a capsule. (ie tonsils) (Mader 128)
III. Nonspecific Defenses: Immunity: Ability to combat diseases and cancer with lines of defense:
A. Barriers to entry (skin and mucous membranes), and phagocytic white blood cells.
B. Chemical Barriers: Secretions of sebaceous glands of skin. Lysozymes: Contain bacterial enzymes. Resident bacteria: Flora- microbes that usually reside in mouth, intestine, and other areas. Prevents potential pathogens from taking up residence.
C. Inflammatory Response: 2nd line of defense.
1c. Inflammation sends neutrophils and macrophages to surround and kill pathogens.
2c. 4 signs of inflammation: redness, heat, swelling, and pain.
3c. Histamine: Released by damaged tissue cells and mast cells. Makes capillaries dilate and become mor permeable.
4c. Cytokines: Attract more white blood cells to area.
5c. Macrophages: More powerful phagocytes than neutrophils. (Mader 128-129)
D. Protective Proteins: Complement system: Blood plasma proteins that "complement" certain immune responses.
1d. Membrane Attack Complex: Produces holes in surface of bacteria and some viruses.
2d. Interferons: Proteins made by virus-infected cells as a warning to noninfected cells nearby. (Mader 130)
IV. Specific Defenses
A. Come into play if nonspecific defenses do not work.
B. Specific Defenses: Overcome an infection by getting rid of particular disease-causing agents. Also helps protect against cancer.
C. Antigens: Molecules the immune system recognizes as foreign to body.
D. Depend primarily oj the action of lymphocytes. (T Cells or B Cells) (Mader 130)
(Insert T Cell picture /www.mcg.edu / http://www.mcg.edu/news/mcgtomorrow/i1.htm)
E. Clonal Selection: How do immune cells recognize invaders?
- Invaders are viruses, bacteria and any other substance that is not part of our body. Remember symbiotic bacteria and other organisms that normally in and on our body are part of it (we are more bacterial cells than human cells!)
- During fetal/childhood/adolescent development, immune cells are exposed to body’s own cells and the proteins that they have on their surface. This happens mostly in the thymus and bone marrow. Those immune cell precursors that attack our own cells are eliminated. Those that recognize other cells continue to develop as T-cells and B-cells.
- This process is called clonal selection.
-The T-cells and B-cells recognize the foreign proteins that are on invaders but have been selected so that they don’t recognize (and try to kill) the body’s own cells.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 20)
F. Antibody editing by clonal selection or deletion: Variety of B-cells produced by random recombination of genes for variable regions of antibody.
- During B-cell development, certain clonal lines are eliminated because their antibodies glom onto the bodys own antigens. B-cell production and clonal selection occurs in bone marrow during early years of life. BCRs (B-Cell Receptors or antibodies recognize.) (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 21)
- Most of cloned B cells become plasma cells: Circulate in blood and lymph. (Mader 131)
G. Structure of an Antibody: Antibodies are the highly variable proteins that are produced by B-cells in order to recognize the foreign proteins on the invaders (called antigens). Antibodies are free in the blood stream. When they are on the surface of B-cells, they are called BCRs or B-Cell Receptors. T-cells also make variable proteins that can recognize antigens called TCRs or T-Cell receptors. Don’t forget that these proteins are made by transcription and translation of certain regions of the DNA. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22)
(Insert structure of antibody picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22)
H. Each cell has its own different antibody, even though they all have the same DNA.
1h. DNA is processed and can change as new cells are formed.
- Recombining regions of DNA that make the antibody recognition site produces all the billions of different combinations of antibodies (and BCRs, TCRs) that recognize any possible invader by the proteins it has on its surface.(Susumau Tonegawa)
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 23)
2h. Immune cells "get rid" of invaders by Phagocytes moving through blood and lymph and into connective tissues (part of inflammation response as cells and fluid move out of capillaries into surround aleolar tissues--diapedesis.) Then, these macrophages actually engulf and dissolve the invading microbes. There are several different sources or kinds of macrophages:
- Langerhans cells in skin
- Phagocytes in blood
- Microglial cells in Central Nervous System
This is called “non-specific immunity". It does not depend on the antibodies or B-cells and T-cells. It does not work very well once an infection spreads. Then we need “specific” immunity based on those specific antibodies that recognize the invader.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 24)
(Insert elimination of invaders picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 24)
I. T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity: Named for T cells directly attacking diseased cells and cancer cells.
1. T Cells Recognize an Antigen: Antigens are displayed to T cells by antigen -presenting cells, such as macrophages.
-APC cells break apart pathogens in a lysosome, APCs travel to a lymph node or spleen, where T cells group together.
- A piece of the broken down pathogen is visible in the groove af an MHC (major histocompatibility complex) protein on the cell's surface.
2. HLA: Human leukocyte antigens: Human MHC proteins. Found on all body cells.
- Comparison studies of HLA antigens must occur before a transplant to compare and match as many proteins as possible.
3. T cells and all of the daughter cells formed by them can recognize "foreign" from "self" and destroy only cells carrying the foreing invaders. When the illness diappears, activated T cells becomes susceptible to apoptosis.
J. Cytotoxic T Cells: After a cytotoxic T cell attaches to a virus-infected cell or tumor cell, it releases perforin molecules, which punch holes into the plasma membrane, forming a pore. They then deliver granzymes into the pore, causes the cell to undeergo apoptosis and die. These are responsible for "cell-mediated immunity".
K. Helper T Cells: Regulate immunity by secreting cytokines, the chemicals that enhance the response of all types of immune cells. B cells cannot be activited without T cell help.
L. Memory T Cells: Remain in the body and can jump-start an immune reaction to an antigen previously present in the body. (Mader 134-135)
V. Acquired Immunity
A. Immunity occurs in two ways:
1. Naturally, by infection,or
2. Artificially, by medical intervention.
B. Two types of acquired immumnity:
1. Active Immunity: Individual alone produces antibodies against an antigen. Active immunity is dependent on the presence of memory B cells and memory T cells. (Vaccines: substances that contain an antigen to which the immune system responds.) Usually, vaccines are the pathogens themselves, that have been treated so theyare no longer violent- can't cause disease.
2. Passive Immunity: Individual is given prepared antibodies via an injection. (Gamma gloculin: injection of serum containing antibodies.) Temporary, since antibodies are not produced by the individual's plasma cells. ie. newborns are passively immune due to mother's antibodies crossing the placenta.
- Monoclona antibodies: Antibodies that are the same type and are produced by plasma cells derived from the same B cell.
1b. Antibody Titer: Determining the amount of antibody present in a sample of plasma. (Mader 136-137)
C. Cytokines: Signaling molecules produced by T lymphocyte, macrophages, and other cells. Regulate white blood cell formation; possible therapy for AIDS.
1c. Interferon and Interleukins: immunotherapeutic drugs to enhance the aability of an individuals' own T cells to fight cancer. (Mader 138)
D. Summarized: "Immunity is acquired by making more copies of pre-existing cells not by creating something new. Therefore a huge number of cells are necessary to combat the wide range of potential antigens." (ARIS Mader Text Website)
VII. Hypersensitivity Reactions
A. Allergies: Hypersensitivities to substances such as pollen, foor, animal hair, etc. Allergens: response to the antigens, usually include some degree of tissue damage.
1a. Immediate Allergic Response: After contact with antigen.
2a. Anaphylactic Shock: An immediate allergic response that occurs because the alleren has entered the bloodstream. (ie beestings)
3a. Delayed Allergic Response: Initiated by memory T cells at site of allergen contact in body. (ie skin test for tuberculosis)
D. Tissue Rejection: Results because the recipient's immune system recognizes that the tranplanted tissue is not "self". Cytotoxic T cells then attck the cells of the transplanted tissue.
1d. Immunosuppresive drugs: Can control organ rejection. These inhibit the production of T-cell cytokines.
2d. Xenotransplantation: use of animal organs instead of hman organs in tranplant patients.
E. Disorders of Immune System: When a person has an autoimmune diseaes, cytotoxic T cells or antibodies mistakenly attack the body's own cells as if they were foreign invaders.
1e. Myasthenia gravis: Antibodies attach to and interfere with the functioning of nueromuclular juntions, and reulsts in weak muscles.
2e. Multiple Sclerosis: T cells attack the myelin sheath of nerve fibers, which causes neuromuscular symptoms.
(Insert multiple sclerosis picture / www.bodyofwealth.com / http://www.bodyofwealth.com/entry/research-for-ms-cause-is-on-the-way-to-start)
3e. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Various symptoms preio to death due to kidney damage from the deposition of excessive antigen-antibody complexes.
4e. Rheumatoid Arthritis: Jounts are affected.
F. When a person has an immune deficiency, the immune system is unable to protect the body against disease. (ie AIDS)
1f. Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease: Both antibody and cell-mediated immunity are lacking or inadequate.

Compendium Review Chapter 6

2008-06-18T13:49:00.000-07:00

Agglutination

Blood Clotting

Nuetrophil
/lymphocyte_nw.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213458472930393714" />
Lymphocyte

Phagocytosis

Sickle Cells

Hemolysis

Red Blood Cells

White Blood Cells

Plasma Cell
I. Blood: An Overview
II. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen
III. White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease
IV. Platelets and Blood Clotting
V. Blood Typing and Transfusion
VI. Homeostasis

I. Blood: An Overview
A. 3 categories for the function of blood:
1. Transport: Blood is the primary transfer medium. Delivers oxygen from lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract to the tissues, where it is exchanged for carbon dioxide and wastes that it takes away from the tissues to exchange surfaces in the lungs and kidneys.
- A variety of organs and tissues secrete hormones into the blood, and blood transports those to other organs and tissues so the hormones can send signals that influence cellular metabolism.
2. Defense: Blood defends the body against invasion by pathogens in several ways. Some blood cells can actually destroy the pathogens, while others secrete antibodies into the blood. These antibodies then "kill" the pathogens, sometimes with the help of white blood cells.
3. Regulation: Blood helps regulate body temperature by picking up heat, (mainly from active muscles), and transporting it to the body.
- Also helps regulate body pH.
B. Composition of Blood
1b. Blood is a tissue, containing cells and cell fragments, which are collectively called the formed elements.
- Formed elements: red and white blood cells, and platelets. All are produced in red bone marrow, which occurs in most of the bones of a child but only certain bones in an adult. Red bone marrow contains stem cells, which divide and give rise to various types of blood cells.
- Red blood cells are 2-3 times smaller than white, but there are many more of them than white.
C. Plasma1c. The liquid medium for carrying various substances in the blood, and also distributes heat generated as a bi-product of metabolism.
- Approximately 91% water.
- Remaining 9% consists of various salts and organic molecules.
- These formed elements are suspended in plasma (liquid), and therefore, blood is classified as a liquid tissue.
(Insert plasma cell picture / www.mcl.tulane.edu http://www.mcl.tulane.edu/classware/pathology/Krause/Blood/Blood.html)
1c. Plasma Proteins: Most abundant organic molecules in blood. Produced by liver.
- Helps maintain homeostasis. 3 major types:
- Albumins: Most abundant of plasma proteins. Contribute most to plasma's osmotic pressure. Combine with and help transport other organic molecules.
-Globulins: Three types: alpha, beta, and gamma. alpha and bets: combine with and help transport substances in the blood.
- Fibrinogens: Produced by white blood cells (lymphocytes), not by liver. Fights diseases.
(Insert white blood cells picture / www.mcl.tulane.edu / http://www.uiowa.edu/~cemrf/archive/sem/large)
2c. Osmotic Pressure: A force that prevents excessive loss of plasma from the capillaries into tissue fluid. (Mader 106-107)
II. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen
A. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are small, biconcave disks that lack a nucleus when mature. Also lack most organelles, including mitochondria. Great quantity.
(Insert red blood cells picture / www.rochedalss.eq.edu.au http://www.rochedalss.eq.edu.au/jeopardy/slide20.htm)
- Specialized for oxygen transport.
- Hemoglobin: A pigment that makes red blood cells and blood a red color. Protein that contains four highly folded polypeptide chains.
- Each red blood cell can carry over a billion copies of oxygen.
- Oxyhemoglobin: Hemoglobin' different shape when oxygen binds to heme in the lungs.
- Deoxyhemoglobin: Heme gives up the oxygen in the tissues, and hemoglobin resumes its former shape. (Mader 108)
- Every second, three million new red blood cells are created through a specialized mitosis. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 16)
B. How does oxygen get into the blood?
1b. Oxygen diffuses into blood in lungs. In lungs, bronchioles (air tubes) branch and branch, finally ending in tiny sacs called alveoli. Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries. Oxygen diffuses across super-thin epithelial tissue of alveolus, across super-thin epithelial tissue of capillary, across red blood cell membrane and is held by Hemoglobin protein molecules in red blood cells. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 15)
C. How do red blood cells help transport carbon dioxide?
- After blood picks up carbon dioxide in the tissues, approx. 7% is dissolved in plasma. 25% is directly transported, and the rest (68%) is transported as the bicarbonate ion in the plasma. (Mader 109)
D. Red blood cells are produced in bone marrow.
- The RBC stem cell in the bone marrow divides and produces new cells that differentiate into mature RBCs.
- Only live for approx. 120 days. Destroyed in liver and spleen by macrophages, white blood cells that come from monocytes.
- Approx. 2 million RBCs are destroyed per second.
E. Blood Doping: Any method of increasing the normal supply of RBCs for the deliverance of oxygen more efficiently.
1e. Erythropoeitin: Kidneys, liver, and other tissues stimulate stem cells in bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. (Mader 109)
F. Disorders Involving Red Blood Cells
1f. Anemia: An insufficient number of red blood cells, or, the cells don't have enough hemoglobin.
2f. Hemolysis: Rupturing of red blood cells.
(Insert hemolysis picture / www.marietta.edu / http://www.marietta.edu/~spilatrs/biol202/labresults)
3f. Sickle Cell Disease: hereditary. Sickle-shaped red blood cells tend to rupture as they pass through the narrow capillaries. (Mader 109)
(Insert sickle cells picture / www.dnai.org / http://www.dnai.org/media/bioinformatics/sicklecell)
- 1910: First documented case, by a cardiologist named James B. Herrick. He noted the following in the patient's blood workup: "Nucleated reds [red blood cells] were numerous, 74 being seen in a count of 200 leukocytes [white blood cells; also note: normal mature redblood cells lack a nucleus]. The shape of the reds was very irregular, but what especially attracted attention was the large number of thin, elongated, sickle-shaped and crescent-shaped forms."
- "Since there are four subunits per hemoglobin molecule, when fully saturated any hemoglobin therefore carries four oxygen molecules (or eight oxygen atoms). Saturation occurs in the lungs, and desaturation in the body tissues."
- "Hemoglobin binds oxygen when the oxygen pressure is high, and releases it when the oxygen pressure is low. In the tissues hemoglobin picks up a small percentage (25%) of the carbon dioxide released there and transports it back to the lungs where it is released. The remainder of the carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs as H2CO3, or carbonic acid, most of which dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonaleration occurs in the lungs, and desaturation in the body tissues."
- Any significant decrease in amount of functional Hb is known as anemia. All forms of anemia have serious physiological effects because of reduced oxygen delivery to and reduced carbon dioxide removal from the tissues. Sickle cell anemia, in particular, creates serious depletion of oxygen through two mechanisms:
- "Because of molecule changes within the sickled cell, oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is greatly reduced; Because of their peculiar shape, greater rigidity, and tendency to stick together, sickle cells clog smaller vessels in the circulatory system -- the arterioles and capillaries in particular --, preventing the blood from delivering oxygen and nutrients, and removing carbon dioxide and wastes from the tissues."
- Might be genetically determined.
- Effects in humans:
a. Short-Term: Because of poor oxygen delivery the individual is frequently out of breath and tires easily;
b. Long-term: Oxygen deprivation leads to poor tissue development;
c. Hemolysis and clogging of arterioles and capillaries in the lungs, kidneys and liver by sickled cells leads to malfunction of many systems and usually death by the age of 30. (ARIS Mader Text Website)
4f. Interestingly enough, patients with sickle cell anemia are more likely to survive malaria! A mutation of the sickle cell gene can provide priceless protection to those regularly exposed to malaria, ie. Africans. (ARIS Mader Text Website.)

III. White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease
A. White blood cells (leukocytes) are different than red in that they are usually larger, they do have a nucleus, lack hemoglobin, and are translucent unless stained. Not as numerous as red, either.
- Derived from stem cells in red bone marrow.
- Can squeeze through the walls of capillaries, so they are also found in tissue fluid and lymph.
B. Colony-stimulating factor: Regulates the production of each type of white blood cell.
C. Immune System: Consists of a variety of cells, tissues, and organs that defend the body against pathogens, cancer cells, and foreign proteins. Some live for a few days, others for months or even years.
D. Phagocytosis: A projection from the cell surrounds a pathogen and engulfs it. The resulting vesicle moves toward and fuses with a lysosome where enzymes digest the pathogen to debris that leaves the cell.
(Insert phagocytosis picture / www.peterjurek.com http://www.peterjurek.com/rbv_site/web_pages/phagocytosis.html)
E. White blood cells may reduce antibodies, proteins that combine with antigens, proteins foreign to the individual, and mark them for destruction.
F. Granular and Agranular Leukocytes: The classification of white blood cells because some have noticeable granules and some do not. Granules contain various enzymes and protein. (Mader 110)
- Granular Leukocytes: Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
1f. White blood cells fight invading microbes as part of the immune system
include:
- Lymphocytes—recognize invaders.
- Monocytes and neutrophils (the most abundant of white blood cells)—actually consume or engulf microbes.
- Basophils—release substances that trigger the other cells.(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 18)
G. Agranular Leukocytes: Lymphocytes and Monocytes.
- Lymphocytes: (2nd most abundant of white blood cells.) B cells and T cells.
- Monocytes: Largest of white blood cells, and after residence in the tissues, they differentiate into even larger macrophages except in skin. (Mader 111)
(Insert lymphocyte and neutrophils pictures / www.wadsworth.org http://www.wadsworth.org/chemheme/heme/microscope/lymphocytes.htm AND faculty.une.edu / http://faculty.une.edu/com/abell/histo/histolab3a.htm)
H. Disorders Involving White Blood Cells
1h. Immune deficiencies can be inherited.
- Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease: Stem cells of white blood cells lack the enzyme adenosine deaminase. Without this, the body can't fight infections of any sort. Treatments: Gene therapy, or regular injections of adenosine deaminase.
- Leukemia: A goup of cancerous conditions that involve uncontrolled white blood cell proliferation. most of them are abnormal or immature, and are therefore no help in defense.
- Epstein-Barr virus: Infection of lymphoctyes causes infectious mononucleosis. The "kissing disease". Infected cells lay dormant and hidden in a few cells for the person's entire life. (Mader 111)
IV. Platelets and Blood Clotting
A. Platelets (thrombocytes) result from fragmentation of certain large cells, called megakaryocytes, in the red bone marrow.
- 200 billion produced per day.
B. Blood Clotting (coagulation): When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets clump at the site of the puncture and seal the break. Large break may also need a blood clot to stop the bleeding.
1b. Platelets and damaged tissue release prothrombin activator, which converts the plasma protein prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin acts as an enzyme that severs two short amino acid chains from each fibrinogen molecule. When these activated fragments join end to end, they form long threads of fibrin, which winds around the platelet in the damaged area of the blood vessel to provide framework for the clot.
2b. Serum: Yellowish liquid that escapes from clot after it is finished clotting.
(Insert blood clotting picture / biomed.brown.edu / http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BI108/2006-108websites/group01Heparin-coatedOxygenators/pages/Heparin_pharmacokinetics.htm)
3b. Disorders:
- Thrombocytopenia: Insufficient number of platelets.
- Thromboembolism: A clot can form in an unbroken blood vessel if it is "rough" because plaque is present. If it dislodges and travels in blood, it is embolus. If thromboembolism is not treated, it can cause a heart attack.
- Hemophilia: Inherited clotting disorder due to a deficiency in a clotting factor.
(Mader 113)
V. Blood Typing and Transfusion
A. Blood transfusion: Transfer of blood from one individual into the blood of another.
B. Bloods must be types to avoid agglutination, the clumping of red blood cells.
(Insert agglutination picture / www.andrews-clinic-natural-therapies.co.uk / http://www.andrews-clinic-natural-therapies.co.uk/darkfield_microscopy.htm)
C. ABO Blood Groups: Based on the presence or absence of two possible antigens, called type A antigen and type B antigen. Depends on inheritance.
- Only certain types of transfusions are safe because the plasma membranes of red blood cells carry glycoproteins that can be antigens to others.
- Type A blood: has anti-B antibodies in the plasma; Type B blood has anti-A antibodies in the plasma, and Type O blood: has both antibodies in the plasma.
D. Blood compatibility: Antibodies in the plasma must not combine with the antigens on the surface of the red blood cells, or it will result in agglutination. (Ie., when anti-A antibodies have combined with type A antigens.)
- Type O Blood: Universal donor. Agglutination will not occur with any other type blood.
E. RH Blood Groups: Designation of blood type usually also includes whether the person has or does not have the Rh factor on the red blood cell. (Mader 114-115)
VI. Homeostasis: Only possible if:
A. The cardiovascular system delivers oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive sytem to, and takes away metabolic wastes from, the tissue fluid that surrounds cells, and second, the lymphatic system returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream. (Mader 116)

Compendium Review Chapter 5 Pictures

2008-06-17T13:38:00.000-07:00

Stent

Heart Attack

Capillary Bed

Blood Flow Through Heart

Capillaries- realistic

Anatomy of a Capillary Bed

Vein

Capillary

Arteriole

Artery

Lymphatic System

Circulation

Cardiovascular System