Wednesday, July 23, 2008
Thank You
Thank you, Professor Frolich. I thoroughly enjoyed this course and feel that I learned a great deal. Best wishes to you!
Final Self-Evaluation
REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The compendium reviews that I spent a great deal of time on, the quizzes that I improved on and finally received a 20/20 on one... :) ... and the labs.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? I'm not sure if I did the final lab completely right. I was getting a little tripped up on the last part of it, when I had to comment about how we've co-evolved.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? A
4. How could I perform better in the next unit? There is no next unit! :(
REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? The online labs. I love the hands on experiments.
At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? Probably during the final lab. This was new to me, and I felt like I was a bit unsure of what I was doing. Also, sometimes, I had a hard time distinguishing what type of interaction it was.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? Other students asking and answering questions on the NING network. I love that.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? None.
What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
The final lab was much easier than the other three. A very pleasant surprise!
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The compendium reviews that I spent a great deal of time on, the quizzes that I improved on and finally received a 20/20 on one... :) ... and the labs.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? I'm not sure if I did the final lab completely right. I was getting a little tripped up on the last part of it, when I had to comment about how we've co-evolved.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? A
4. How could I perform better in the next unit? There is no next unit! :(
REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? The online labs. I love the hands on experiments.
At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? Probably during the final lab. This was new to me, and I felt like I was a bit unsure of what I was doing. Also, sometimes, I had a hard time distinguishing what type of interaction it was.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? Other students asking and answering questions on the NING network. I love that.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? None.
What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
The final lab was much easier than the other three. A very pleasant surprise!
Unit 4 Lab Project: List of Species
Beetle
Yellojacket
Staphylococcus Epidermidis
Spider Mites
Moth
Mosquito
Iceberg Lettuce Field
Housefly
Dust Mite
Black Widow
Definition of Domestication: A population of animals or plants, through a process of selection, that becomes accustomed to human provision and control, or care.
1.
- Common Name: Dog
- Scientific Name: Canis Lupus Familiarus
- Interaction: Symbiotic. Our family benefits from this relationship because we receive love, entertainment, and protection from our dogs. The dogs benefit because they receive all of this from us, plus food, water, etc.
- Domesticated.
- We have been co-evolving ever since man decided to domesticate the wild dog. They have assisted us in hunting, protection, etc., and we have come to depend on them for these things.
2.
- Common Name: Cat
- Scientific Name: Felius Domesticus
- Interaction: Symbiotic. Our family benefits from this relationship because she is sweet and loving, and has been known to catch a mouse or two. In fact, some humans "use" cats just for that purpose: hunting of rodents in barns, etc. The cat benefits because it has a warm, safe environment, and we provide it with food, water, and love.
- Humans have co-evolved with this species in the same way as with dogs.
3.
- Common Name: Dust Mite
- Scientific Name: North American Dermatophagoides Farinae
- Interaction: Parasitic. Dust mites feed on dead skin cells of humans. At first, I thought that maybe that benefited humans in the fact that they are, in a way, cleaning up our beds, etc. from dead skin cells. But I figure that we can easily throw a sheet in the washer, vacuum, dust, etc., so we don't need them to do that and the effect of them doing it is surely very minimal. I learned that dust mites are the most common cause of allergies, so they are harmful to humans.
- Not domesticated. Since we can't see them with the naked eye, our interaction with them is "blind".
- Humans have co-evolved with them because there is really nothing we can do to totally eliminate them. Yes, you can vacuum everyday, but you can't get them all. Basically, we hardly notice that they're there, and even if we have allergies, we medicate ourselves, and our interaction with them is unchanged.
4.
- Common Name: Willow Tree
- Scientific Name: Salix Salicaceae
- Interaction: Symbiotic. The tree benefits because it depends on us to water it, fertilize it, and take care of it. (Especially here in the desert.) We benefit because we can enjoy its beauty and shade.
- Domesticated. As I said, here in the desert, the tree has become accustomed to humans caring for it and depends on them. Also, humans "farm" trees.
- We co-evolve with them very easily; we enjoy them and they need us. They also help the environment through photosynthesis. Unfortunately, we sometimes cut too many down, but they keep growing (after we plant them), and we co-evolve.
5.
- Common Name: Red Ant
- Scientific Name: Formicidae Solenopsis
- Interaction: Parasitic. I am unaware of any benefits to other species from red ants. Contrary, other species are harmed by the red ant. Humans can be stung, and they kill crickets and plants to eat.
- Not domesticated. We do not come into contact (voluntarily) with red ants, and they are not accustomed to humans.
- Humans don't always co-evolve with this species well. Many times, we have pest control come out and spray the ant hills in order to avoid our pets or children getting stung by the multiple numbers of ants in a colony. We try to avoid them.
6.
- Common Name: Whiptail Lizard
- Scientific Name: Teiidae
- Interaction: Commensal. I think that we benefit, because we see them outside in our yard all the time and my kids love watching them and admiring them. The lizard is unharmed.
- Not domesticated. They are not accustomed to humans.
- We co-evolve by mostly ignoring each other. The lizards around our house are skittish, yet they remain right around the door, in the yard, etc. I do not think that they are accustomed to us, yet we can get close enough to them at times to admire them from close range, so they are obviously not harmed by us, either.
7.
- Common Name: Peach
- Scientific Name: Prunus Persica
- Interaction: Mutualistic. Peach trees are planted and cared for by humans, but I believe we benefit more, because we get to enjoy them when we eat them.
- Domesticated. Farmers plant and raise the trees, then sell the fruit.
- We co-evolve in that manner: purchase the seeds, baby trees, plant them, nourish them, pick the fruit, and sell it. However, we can grow them in places outside of their natural environment, so we co-evolve together nicely.
8.
- Common Name: Housefly
- Scientific Name: Musca Domestica
- Interaction: Hmmm... this one is more confusing. I suppose humans benefit because flies decompose certain nasty dead and decaying materials. Yet, they can make us ill (they carry over 100 pathogens), and are horribly annoying. So, we usually swat them. They definitely do not benefit from humans. I think this relationship would be parasitic, b/c we benefit from their ability to decompose, and they are often harmed by humans.
- Domesticated, in a way, but undomesticated, too. They have become accustomed to humans, to a degree, but we do not control or care for them. Unless, of course, "control" can be understood as pest control, in that we eliminate them when we can.
9.
- Common Name: Bird
- Scientific Name: Aves
- Interaction: Mostly commensal, but can be symbiotic. We benefit from their beauty, their song, the fact that they eat insects, etc. Most of the time, the bird is unharmed. Sometimes, however, they benefit too, (symbiotic), like when we provide bird baths and bird seed for them.
- Not domesticated. They are mainly wild (the ones I come in contact with, anyhow.) However, some people own them as pets, and those would obviously be domesticated.
- We co-evolve with them naturally. Since they are airborn, most people do not come into direct contact with them.
10.
- Common Name: Southern Black Widow
- Scientific Name: Latrodectus Mactans
- Interaction: Well, if you can appreciate that they feed on insects, you could say that that is a benefit to the human species. This relationship would be commensal. However, their venom is very potent, and they can be very harmful to humans. They do not benefit from humans at all, other than indirectly, when they come live in your house and get shelter without you knowing it. So, it could be considered parasitic, in this respect: they receive shelter, and we get bit.
- We co-evolve with them by being ignorant of their existence, and when we are made aware of it, we usually squish them.
11.
- Common Name: Scorpion
- Scientific Name: Scorpiones Arachnida
- Interaction: Again, scorpions eat insects, so that could be considered beneficial to humans. Scorpions do not benefit at all from humans. In this respect, the relationship would be considered commensal. However, I would rather see pretty much any insect in the world before a scorpion, and I got stung by one just last week. So in this scenario, I don't think humans benefit from them at all, but they don't benefit either. What kind of relationship is that? :)
- We co-evolve by avoiding them as much as possible, and they co-evolve with us by defending themselves.
12.
- Common Name: Cricket
- Scientific Name: Gryllidae
- Interaction: Commensal: Crickets are omnivores and scavengers feeding on organic materials, as well as decaying plant material, fungi, and some seedling plants. In this way, humans benefit from them, but I can't see any way they benefit from us.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve by mostly ignoring each other. (Except when they're chirping outside your window driving you nuts and you have to go scare them away.)
13.
- Common Name: Mosquito
- Scientific Name: Culicidae
- Interaction: Parasitic. They drink our blood, and make us susceptible to diseases.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve by using bug spray and smacking them when we see them.
14.
- Common Name: Strawberries
- Scientific Name: Fragaria Ananassa
- Interaction: Symbiotic. We plant them and take care of them (at least, the farmers who sell them), and then we get to enjoy them by eating them.
- Both domesticated and not domesticated (some are still wild).
- We co-evolve by growing them, eating them, and then re-growing them.
15.
- Common Name: S. Epidermis (Found on skin and in nasal passages.)
- Scientific Name: Staphylococcus Epidermidis
- Interaction: Parasitic. We receive no benefits from this bacteria. It lives on our skin, and if the skin is punctured, CAN cause disease.
- Not domesticated.
- Humans have always co-evolved with this bacteria. It is invisible to us and does not bother us, unless a wound becomes infected with it, and then it is treated with antibiotics.
16.
- Common Name: Spider Mites
- Scientific Name: Tetranychus Urticae (Plant feeding mite found in dry areas.)
- Interaction: Parasitic. They can cause significant damage to plants because they puncture the plant's cells for food. The plant (nor humans) receive any benefit from them.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve without really noticing each other. They are minuscule. If we were to interact with them at all, it would be to eliminate them with some sort of pesticide.
17.
- Common Name: Rose
- Scientific Name: Rosa Rosaceae
- Interaction: Symbiotic. We plant them, nurture them, water them, feed them, and we enjoy their beauty and scent.
- Domesticated.
- We co-evolve in the same manner as described above under "Interaction".
18.
- Common Name: Yellojwacket
- Scientific Name: Dolichovespula Arenaria
- Interaction: Symbiotic. Humans benefit minimally because they are MINOR pollinators. They only benefit from humans when humans plant flowers / bushes for them to pollinate. However, some might argue that the relationship is parasitic, in the sense that they are only minor pollinators, and can sting humans. They can even cause death if a whole bunch of them swarm a human.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve through avoidance, both ways. We avoid them so we won't get stung. They usually avoid people because there is no benefit for them to interact with us.
19.
- Common Name: Moth
- Scientific Name: Insecta Lepidoptera
- Interaction: Parasitic, though it depends on what kind of moth. Most moths (or their larvae) are extremely destructive to trees, fruit trees, and forests because they feed on them. So, they receive nourishment, but they can kill the trees. However, if you were specifically talking about the silkworm (larvae of a certain kind of moth), you would have to say symbiotic, because humans benefit from their silk.
- Not domesticated.
- We co-evolve (again) by ignoring each other. Humans mostly find them a nuisance, but they really pay no attention to us at all.
20.
- Common Name: Lettuce (in salad)
- Scientific Name: Lactuca Sativa
- Interaction: Mutualism. We plant, nourish and grow it. We also then eat it as a form of nourishment, which seems like the better deal of the two.
- Domesticated.
- Co-evolve by taking care of it and then consuming it.
21.
- Common Name: Ladybug
- Scientific Name: Coccinellidae
- Interaction: Commensal. Humans benefit, because they feed on small insects and they are fun and "friendly" for children to interact with. They do not benefit from us, though.
- Not domesticated.
- They don't bother us, and we don't bother them! :)
22.
- Common Name: Coffee
- Scientific Name: Coffea Canephora
- Interaction: Symbiotic. It is planted and grown commercially, and then humans enjoy it in liquid form.
- Domesticated.
- We cultivate it, sell it, and drink it.
23.
- Common Name: Beetle
- Scientific Name: Coleoptera
- Interaction: Commensal. We benefit from them because they break down animal and plant debris. I don't think they benefit from us, but we do not harm them, either. (Generally speaking.)
- Not domesticated.
- We pretty much ignore each other.
Tuesday, July 22, 2008
Ethical Issues Essay: World Resource Use
World Population Total
World Population Growth Rate
It is abundantly clear that, worldwide, we are in danger of exhausting our natural resources. Our nonrenewable resources, those limited in supply, consist of things like land, fossil fuels and minerals. It seems that, eventually, it is inevitable that these resources will run out completely. Even our renewable resources (water, food, certain forms of energy) are in danger, because consumption is threatening to overcome the rate of replenishment. An entirely different concern is directly related to the problem of the exhaustion of our natural resources: pollution and loss of biodiversity, habitats, etc. These issues should be of great concern to all of us.
Initially, people thought that fertility rates alone were the main contributors to the loss of our resources. Obviously, they were right, to an extent. High fertility rates equal population booms, which equals strain on resources. However, the theory that this is the only factor causing this major strain is very clearly wrong. Consider China, the world's most populous country. When they realized how their population was effecting their consumption of resources, they decided to impose a 0 population growth plan, that limited each couple to only 2 children. Because of this, the country has decreased their fertility rate. Why, then, has their resource use (especially in respect to energy) continued to soar? First, while it is true that couples were having less children, the fact is that there were MORE couples to have children, due to previous population booms. The idea that the two children simply replaced the parents, and there was therefore no growth, was a fallacy. This is because each couples children would then go and have children themselves. Now, the family unit consisted of the couple, their two children, and the two children each of their two children. Obviously, this continues the population growth. To further explore this idea, consider the following fact: birth rates have dropped to nearly half of what they were in 1950, worldwide. (See above chart: World Population Growth Rate.) However, the world population will continue to increase. (See above chart: World Population Total.) So, even when people are limited in the amount of children they have, populations continue to grow, and the more people there are, the greater the strain on resources.
However, there are other factors that contribute to this strain. When it comes to energy consumption, "When a North American couple stops at two children, it is the equivalent of an East Indian couple stopping at 60, or an Ethiopian couple at 600." Wow. That is a startling statistic! This makes it very clear that economic development has an even greater impact on the overconsumption of our resources than population does. How is this even possible? One only has to consider the vast differences between the "comfortable" life we experience as Americans, in comparison to the way people struggle in LDCs. I can't even imagine living somewhere where my child was in constant danger of dying due to things like limitations of healthy foods, water contamination, and disease. In fact, the mere thought of it is horrifying to me. Instead, my four year old has everything she could possibly need. She can eat as much as she wants to fill her tummy, every single day. She has the luxury of electricity: air-conditioning, fans, lighting, music, movies, television, video games, computer, etc. Her water is filtered and clean, and again, she can drink as much as she wants of it every single day. She can take her nightly bath, and go to bed clean and comfortable. She receives vaccinations to keep her safe from the diseases that could otherwise kill her. When I think about it in this way, I am reminded of how lucky she is... and I am, to live in a place where all of this is routine. So, it is alien and heartbreaking to me to think of the way people in LDCs must live. However, I also realize how unfair it is for my children to have all of these luxuries when other children struggle so, and in turn, be partially responsible for the scary situation we are in regarding the exploitation of our resources. Is it necessary for us as a family to use the amount of energy we do every single day lighting our homes, watching our tvs, using our computers and video games for pure entertainment, etc? Absolutely not. And yet, because this is the life we are accustomed to, I can hardly even imagine living without our television for a week! "The per capita energy consumption rate in the U.S. is 11000 W, the approximate rate of energy consumption of a 30,000 Kg primate." So sad, but believable, based on my above commentary.
So, the answer the question "What else strains our resources?", besides population? Over-consumption. The overuse of our resources because we have become accustomed to a certain lifestyle, as a community. Basically, we are a spoiled Nation. We have become accustomed to driving everywhere, and having "unlimited" (or so we thought) access to things like electricity and water. Should we stop worrying altogether about population growth? Absolutely not; there is no doubt that it still contributes to the problem. But it is in no way the only problem. In all honesty, the "Go Green" movement is a wonderful start and has been a long time in coming, but until people begin to realize the truly devastating nature of our current situation when it comes to the exhausting of our resources, many people will not take it seriously, and the problems we are seeing now will only get worse for future populations.
Monday, July 21, 2008
Human Populations Demographics Online Lab
World Vs. High Fertility Rate Country (Ethiopia)
World Vs. Low Fertility Rate Country (Barbados)
Answer the following questions:
1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate? My high fertility rate country was Ethiopia. Its fertility rate was 6.90 children.
2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate? My low fertility rate country was Barbados. Its fertility rate was 1.80 children.
3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth? If a country has a high fertility rate, it means that women in their reproductive years (approximately 20-40) are producing a large number of offspring. The more women reproducing, the more young people there would be in the population. As the young population grows with more births, it is understandable that the population of young people could surpass the population of old. Future population growth would be affected because the more young people you have in a population, the more potential for growth. There would be more children who will reach reproductive years and reproduce, so the population will continue to increase.
4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people. Low fertility rate means that there are less people of reproductive age who are producing. In other words, if you have a group of 50 women who are of reproductive age, but only 10 of them reproduce, you would obviously have more middle-aged people than young, because not many are reproducing. The older generation will die of natural causes / old age, so the "largest" population would be the middle-aged people.
5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.
Middle Ages / Older Population:
1. Wise / Educated
2. Responsible
3. Quiet
4. Organized
5. Comfortable
6. Clean
7. Sad (Children bring joy!)
8. Efficient
9. Conservative
10. Lacking in energy
Children / Young Population:
1. Energetic
2. Boisterous
3. Happy- Family Units
4. Carefree
5. Joyous
6. Disorganized
7. Loud
8. Supportive
9. More diverse
10. More culturally accepting
Compendium Review Chapter 24- Pictures
Species Extinction by State
Biodiversity Loss
Wind Farm
Global Warming
Desertification Risk
(World Map- Population Density)
Compendium Review Chapter 24
I. Human Population Growth
II. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
III. Biodiversity
IV. Working Toward a Sustainable Society
I. Human Population Growth
A. Current world population: Approx. 7 billion people.
- Exponential Growth: Increase of growth by a great deal.
- Growth Rate: Determined by considering the difference between the number of persons born per year and the number who die per year. Rates are recorded per 1000 people.
- Biotic Potential: Maximum growth rate under ideal conditions.
- Growth declines due to factors such as food and space.
- Carrying Capacity: Maximum population that the environment can support for an indefinite period.
B. MDCs Versus the LDCs
1b. MDCs: More Developed Countries: (countries like N American and Europe.) MDCs are those in which populatin growth is modest and the people enjoy a good standard of living.
- 1850-1950: Big population increases due to development of modern medicine and improvements in public health and socioeconomic conditions. Since then, the decline in death rate was folllowed by a decline in birthrate, so there has only been modest growth since 1950.
- Population by 2050 is expected to be about 1.2 billion.
2b. LDCs: Less-developed countries: (Africa, Asia)
- Death rate declined steeply w/ modern medicine, but birthrate remained high.
- Women in sub-Saharan Africa average 5 children each.
- Population by 2050 is expected to be about 8 billion.
- Asia is the "worst", in that they are expected to experience acute water scarcity, loss of biodiversity, and more urban pollution. 12 of 15 most polluted cities are located in Asia.
(Insert World Map / Population Density picture / mapsofworld.com / http://mapsofworld.com/world-population-density.htm)
C. Comparing Age Structure: Populations have 3 age groups: pre-reproductve, reproductive, and postreproductive.
- Replacement Reproduction: The idea of couples limiting themselves to 2 children equalling zero population grwoth.
- Untrue, beccause since more young women are entering the reproductive years than older women leaving them, the population continues to increase. (Mader 512-513)
II. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
A. Resources used the most by humans: land, water, food, energy, and minerals.
1a. Nonrenewable Resources: Limited in supply. Land, fossil fuels, and minerals is finite and can be exhausted.
- Renewable Resources: Capable of being naturally replenished. Water, certain forms of energy, plants, animals, etc. can be replenished.
B. Pollution: Side effect of resource consumption. Any alteration of the environment in an undesirable way.
- Often caused by human activity. Effect is proportional to the size of the population.
1b. Land: Worldwide, there are approx. 83 persons per square mile of all available land.
- Land is alse required for agriculature, power plants, highways, other buildings (hospitals), etc., in addition to homes.
2b. Beaches and Human Habitation: Approx 40% of world population lives within 60 miles of a coastline, and is expected to increase.
- Causes beach erosion, loss of habitat for marine organisms, and loss of buffer zone for storms.
- Particularly susceptible to pollution.
3b. Semiarid Lands and Human Habitation: 40% of Earth's lands are deserts.
- Desertification: The conversion of semiarid land to desertlike conditions.
- Begins w/ overgrazing of land. Soil can't hold rainwater, so it runs off instead of nourishing life. Any vegetation is removed by humans, and results in a lifeless desert.
(Insert Desertification Risk picture / www.sou.edu http://www.sou.edu/Geography/JONES/GEOG111.112/atlas/atlas.htm)
4b. Tropical Rain Forest and Human Habitation:
- Deforestation: Removal of trees.
- People are settling tropical rain forests, like the Amazon. This land then becomes subject to desertification.
- Land quickly loses its fertility because most of the nutrients are in trees or other vegetation.
- Loss of biodiversity.
C. Water: Worldwide, 70% of all freshwater is used to irrigate crops.
- In MDCs, more water is usde for bathing, flushing toilets, and watering lawns than for drinking and cooking.
- humans increase the supply of freshwater by damming rivers and withdrawing water from aquifers.
1c. Dams: Worlwide, 45,000 dams catch 14% of all precipitation runoff, provide water for up to 40% of irrigated land, and provide approx. 65 countries w/ more than 1/2 of their electricity.
- Lots of water loss due to evaporatin and seepage into underlying rock beds.
- Salt left behind by evap. and runoff increases alinity and can make a river's water unusable.
- Hold back less h2n w/ sediment buildup.
2c. Aquifers: Reservoirs found just below or as much as 1km below surface.
- Causes ground-water depletion.
- Consequences: Causing land subsidence, a settling of soil as it dries out. Causes surface of ground to drop. Subsidence causes damage to canals, buildings, and underground pipes.
- Can cause sinkholes: Underground collapsing of cavern when water no longer holds up roof.
- Saltwater Intrusion: As water is withdrawn, water table can lower to the point that seawater backs up into streams and aquifers, which reduces supply of freshwater.
3c. Conservation of Water:
- By 2025, approx. 2/3 of world's population may be living in countries facing seriuos water shortages.
- Possible solutions: Planting drought and salt-tolerant crops, using drip irrigation, re-use of water, and adopting conservation measures. (Mader 514-515)
D. Food: Comes from growing crops, raising animals, and fishing the seas.
1d. Harmful practices of farming methods:
- Monoculture: planting of only a few genetic varieties means a single type of parasite can cause total devestation.
- Heavy use of ferilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. (Causing water pollution, decreased soil fertility, development of cancer.)
- Agricultural runoff: Causes chemicals to enter our water supply.
- Generous irrigation: Too much water is extracted from aquifers.
- Excessive fuel consumption.
2d. Soil Loss and Degredation: Land that is good for farming and grazing animals is being degraded worlwide.
- Soil erosion causes loss of topsoil, causing desertification. Farmland is unproductive.
- U.S. and Canada have the highest rates of soil erosion in the world.
- Salinization: Accumulation of mineral salts due to evaporation of excess irrigation water. Makes land unsuitable for growing crops.
3d. Green Revolutions: Dramatic increase in yield of crops in LDSs due to introduction of new varieites of crops. Still require high levels of fertilizer, water, and pesticides, so they cause the same problem as modern farming methods.
4d. Genetic Engineering: Can produce transgenic plants resistant to insects and herbicides. Soil erosion is minimized.
5d. Domestic Livestock: 2/3 of cropland is devoted to producing livestock feed. Therefore, raising livestock accouts for much of the pollution associated with farming.
- Problems: waste, water use for washing livestock, etc. (Mader 516-519)
E. Energy:
1e. Nonrenewable Sources: Nuclear power (approx. 6% of world's energy supply) and fossil fuels (approx. 75%).
- Nuclear power: Not used very much because of nuclear power dangers and radioactive wastes.
- Fossil Fuels: Oil, natural gas, and coal. Derived from compressed remains of ploants and animal that died many thousands of years ago. U.S. is only 5% of world's population, yet it uses more than half of the fossil fuel energy supply! Pollutants are released into the air as it burns.
2e. Fossil Fuels and Global Climate Change:
- Burning of fossil fuels and burning of forests has caused increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
- Human activities cause emission of other gases, too, such as methane. These are greenhouse gases, because they allow solar radiation to pass through but hinder the escape of infrared heat back into space.
- Global Warming: Earth may warm to temps never before experienced by living things. If this happens, glaciers will melt, sea levels will rise, and coastal cities could be threatened. Would endanger coral reefs, present assmeblage of species in ecosystems will be disrupted as species migrate north for cooler weather. Loss of species unable to migrate.
(Insert Global Warming picture / global.mitsubishielectric.com / http://global.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/solar/environment/main.html)
3e. Renewable Energy Sources: Hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar.
- Hydropower: Converts energy of falling water into electricity. Approx. 10% of electric power generated in US, and almost 98% of total renewable energy used.
- Geothermal Energy: Uranium, thorium, radium, and plutonium undergo radioactive decay below Earth's surface and heat the surrounding rocks. When they are in contact w/ water, it heats water. Can be piped up to surface for use.
- Wind Power: Space needed for wind farms that produce electricity is comparable to amount of land required by a coal-fired power plant or solar energy system. Expected to increase use in future.
(Insert Wind Farm picture / www.ronsaari.com / http://www.ronsaari.com/stockImages/windmills/WindFarmPalmSpringsCA.php)
- Energy and the Solar-Hydrogen Revolution: Solar energy must be collected, converted, and stored. Can be used for passive-solar heating of houses, and heat can be sotred in water tanks, rocks, bricks, etc.
- Photovoltaic (solar) cell: A wafer of electron-emitting metal is in contact with another metal that collects the eletrons and passes them along into wires in a steady stream. These cells can be placed on roofs to generate electricity. Can be used to create hydrogen fuel, to be used in future cars. (Mader 520-522)
F. Minerals: Nonrenewable raw materials in Earth's crust that can be extracted. Includes fossil fuels, nonmetallic raw materials, such as sand, gravel, and phophate; and metals, such as aluminum copper, iron, lead, and gold.
- Heavy metals are dangerous to humans: lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, tin, chromium, zinc, and copper. Used in electronics, medicines, paints, etc. Inhibit vital enzymes in body.
- Strip / surface mining: One of greatest threats to maintenance of ecosystem and biodiversity. Rain washes toxic waste deposits into streams and rivers.
1f. Hazardous Wastes: Nine most common: heavy metals, synthetic organic compounds, benzene, polychlorinated biphenyls, and chloroform.
- Chlorofluorocarbons: Type of halogenated hydrocarbon in which both chlorine and flourine atoms replace some of the hydrogen atoms. Thin ozone shield, which is essentail for protection of utraviolet radiation.
- Biological Magnification: Wastes that enter and accumulate in the fat or organisms, ans since they are not excreted, they become more and more concentrated as they pass along a food chain. (Mader 522-523)
III. Biodiversity
A. Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, described in terms of the number of different species.
- We are in biodiversity crisis: Number of extinctions expected to occur in the near future is unparallel in the history of the Earth.
B. Loss of Biodiversity is due to all of the following:
- Habitat Loss: Human occupation and expansion.
- Alien Species (Exotics): Nonnative members of an ecosystem. Humans introduce them to ecosystems due to colonization, horticulture, and agriculture, and accidental transport. Some are invasive, and crowd out native species.
- Pollution: Acid deposition (weakens trees), global warming (loss of habitat, etc.), ozone depletion (CFCs), and synthetic organic chemicals.
- Overexploitation: Too many individuals are taken from a wild population so it is reduced in number. ie. exotic pets. (Poaching, overfishing, etc.)
- Disease: Exposure to domestic animals and their pathogens occur when humans encroach on wildlife habitats.
(Insert Biodiversity Loss picture / www.greenfacts.org http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/l-3/7-climate-change-biodiversity-loss.htm)
C. Direct Value of Biodiversity: Direct value of wildlife is related to their medicianl value, agricultural value,and consumptive use value.
1c. Medicinal Value: Potent medicines are dervied from plants, fungus, some animals (ie horseshoe crab) and certain types of bacteria.
2c. Agricultural Value: Crops are dervied from wild plants that have been modified to be high producers. Biological pest control, bees pollinating plants, etc/
3c. Consumptive Use Value: Catching of fishes, crustatceans, and mammals. Products sold in marketplaces. Trees for wood, etc.
D. Indirect Value of Biodiversity: Services that are pervasive and not easily discernable.
- Waste Disposal: Decomposers break down dead organic matter and other types of wastes to inorganic nutrients that are used by the producers within ecosystems. If not for this service, Earth would be covered in waste. Some biological communities can break down and immobilize pollutants.
- Provision of freshwater: Water cycle supplies freshwater to terrestrial ecosystems. Provide us w/ fish and other food. "Sponge Effect": Forests soak up water and release it at a regular rate.
- Prevention of Soil Erosion: Intact ecosystems naturally retain soil and prevent soil erosion.
- Biogeochemical Cycles: Biodiversity within ecosystems contributes to the workings of the water, phophorus, nitrogen, carbon, and other biogeochemical cycles, which we depend on for freshwater.
- Regulation of Climate: Trees provide shade and reduce the need for fans and air conditioners. Forests ameliorate the climate because they take up carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide has a significant impact on global warming, which is increased with deforestation.
- Ecotourism: Relaxing in the wild! :) (Mader 524-530)
IV. Working Toward a Sustainable Society
A. Sustainable Society: One that could always provide the same amount of goods and services for future generations as it does at present. Biodiversity would also be preserved.
1a. Today's Unsustainable Society: Population growth and excessive resource consumption stresses the environment, including worldwide pollution and the extnction of wildlife.
(Insert Species Extinction by State picture / www.unl.edu / http://www.unl.edu/nac/conservation/atlas/Map_Html/Biodiversity/National/Species_Extinctions/Species_extinctions.htm)
2a. Characteristics of a Sustainable Society:
- Makes use of only renewable solar energy.
- Materials cycle through the various populations back to the producer.
- Protection of natural ecosystmes.
- Efficiency (cars, etc.)
3a. Rural Sustainability:
- Emphasis on preservation: ecosystems, agricultural land, groves of fruit trees, etc. Possible steps: plant cover crops, multiuse farming, replenish soil nutrients, low flow or trickle irrigation, increase planting of cultivars, use precision farming, use integrated pest management, etc.
4a. Urban Sustainability:
- Sharing of resources. Possible steps: Energy-efficient transportation system, solar or geothermal energy, utilize green roofs, improve storm-water management, plant native species grasses, create greenbelts, etc.
B. Assessing Economic Well-Being and Quality of Life:
- Gross National Product: Measurement of the flow of money from consumers to businesses, in the form of goods and services purchased. (Total costs of manufacturing, production and srvices in the form of salaries, wages, mortgage and rent, interets and loans, taxes, and profit. Use value, option value, existence value, aesthetic value, cultural value, and scientific and educational value are all factors. (Mader 530-533)
Ok... So I'm not going to lie... I had a REALLY hard time fitting the last part of your powerpoint into chapter 24. I felt like I was reading the wrong chapter, or something. So, I'm including it here in the end:
In a community, relationships among species can be beneficial, damaging or neutral:
Symbiotic: mutually beneficial, both species benefit
Parasitic: one species benefits (“parasite”) and the other is harmed (“host”)
Commensal: One species benefits, the other is unharmed
Mutualism: both species benefit, like symbiosis, but it may appear one species has the advantage, but evolutionarily, over the long-term, both benefit
Predation: Usually considered parasitic, where the predator is the parasite, but can also be seen as mutualistic.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 26)
A. Relationships Among Species
- We do still have ecological relationships with “wild” species. Examples:
- Hunt mushrooms
- Create game reserves
- Create national parks
- Household and urban/rural “pests” (e.g. molds, sewer rats)
- Symbiotic micro-organisms (skin and mouth bacteria)
- Disease-causing micro-organisms
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 26)
B. Our Relationships w/ Domesticated Species
- But mostly we have tight relationships with domesticated species. Basis for ecological relationship:
- Food and agriculture (by far most common—food crops and animals)
- Transportation (“beasts of burden”)
- Care and protection (pets)
- Laboratory study and production
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 29)
II. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
III. Biodiversity
IV. Working Toward a Sustainable Society
I. Human Population Growth
A. Current world population: Approx. 7 billion people.
- Exponential Growth: Increase of growth by a great deal.
- Growth Rate: Determined by considering the difference between the number of persons born per year and the number who die per year. Rates are recorded per 1000 people.
- Biotic Potential: Maximum growth rate under ideal conditions.
- Growth declines due to factors such as food and space.
- Carrying Capacity: Maximum population that the environment can support for an indefinite period.
B. MDCs Versus the LDCs
1b. MDCs: More Developed Countries: (countries like N American and Europe.) MDCs are those in which populatin growth is modest and the people enjoy a good standard of living.
- 1850-1950: Big population increases due to development of modern medicine and improvements in public health and socioeconomic conditions. Since then, the decline in death rate was folllowed by a decline in birthrate, so there has only been modest growth since 1950.
- Population by 2050 is expected to be about 1.2 billion.
2b. LDCs: Less-developed countries: (Africa, Asia)
- Death rate declined steeply w/ modern medicine, but birthrate remained high.
- Women in sub-Saharan Africa average 5 children each.
- Population by 2050 is expected to be about 8 billion.
- Asia is the "worst", in that they are expected to experience acute water scarcity, loss of biodiversity, and more urban pollution. 12 of 15 most polluted cities are located in Asia.
(Insert World Map / Population Density picture / mapsofworld.com / http://mapsofworld.com/world-population-density.htm)
C. Comparing Age Structure: Populations have 3 age groups: pre-reproductve, reproductive, and postreproductive.
- Replacement Reproduction: The idea of couples limiting themselves to 2 children equalling zero population grwoth.
- Untrue, beccause since more young women are entering the reproductive years than older women leaving them, the population continues to increase. (Mader 512-513)
II. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
A. Resources used the most by humans: land, water, food, energy, and minerals.
1a. Nonrenewable Resources: Limited in supply. Land, fossil fuels, and minerals is finite and can be exhausted.
- Renewable Resources: Capable of being naturally replenished. Water, certain forms of energy, plants, animals, etc. can be replenished.
B. Pollution: Side effect of resource consumption. Any alteration of the environment in an undesirable way.
- Often caused by human activity. Effect is proportional to the size of the population.
1b. Land: Worldwide, there are approx. 83 persons per square mile of all available land.
- Land is alse required for agriculature, power plants, highways, other buildings (hospitals), etc., in addition to homes.
2b. Beaches and Human Habitation: Approx 40% of world population lives within 60 miles of a coastline, and is expected to increase.
- Causes beach erosion, loss of habitat for marine organisms, and loss of buffer zone for storms.
- Particularly susceptible to pollution.
3b. Semiarid Lands and Human Habitation: 40% of Earth's lands are deserts.
- Desertification: The conversion of semiarid land to desertlike conditions.
- Begins w/ overgrazing of land. Soil can't hold rainwater, so it runs off instead of nourishing life. Any vegetation is removed by humans, and results in a lifeless desert.
(Insert Desertification Risk picture / www.sou.edu http://www.sou.edu/Geography/JONES/GEOG111.112/atlas/atlas.htm)
4b. Tropical Rain Forest and Human Habitation:
- Deforestation: Removal of trees.
- People are settling tropical rain forests, like the Amazon. This land then becomes subject to desertification.
- Land quickly loses its fertility because most of the nutrients are in trees or other vegetation.
- Loss of biodiversity.
C. Water: Worldwide, 70% of all freshwater is used to irrigate crops.
- In MDCs, more water is usde for bathing, flushing toilets, and watering lawns than for drinking and cooking.
- humans increase the supply of freshwater by damming rivers and withdrawing water from aquifers.
1c. Dams: Worlwide, 45,000 dams catch 14% of all precipitation runoff, provide water for up to 40% of irrigated land, and provide approx. 65 countries w/ more than 1/2 of their electricity.
- Lots of water loss due to evaporatin and seepage into underlying rock beds.
- Salt left behind by evap. and runoff increases alinity and can make a river's water unusable.
- Hold back less h2n w/ sediment buildup.
2c. Aquifers: Reservoirs found just below or as much as 1km below surface.
- Causes ground-water depletion.
- Consequences: Causing land subsidence, a settling of soil as it dries out. Causes surface of ground to drop. Subsidence causes damage to canals, buildings, and underground pipes.
- Can cause sinkholes: Underground collapsing of cavern when water no longer holds up roof.
- Saltwater Intrusion: As water is withdrawn, water table can lower to the point that seawater backs up into streams and aquifers, which reduces supply of freshwater.
3c. Conservation of Water:
- By 2025, approx. 2/3 of world's population may be living in countries facing seriuos water shortages.
- Possible solutions: Planting drought and salt-tolerant crops, using drip irrigation, re-use of water, and adopting conservation measures. (Mader 514-515)
D. Food: Comes from growing crops, raising animals, and fishing the seas.
1d. Harmful practices of farming methods:
- Monoculture: planting of only a few genetic varieties means a single type of parasite can cause total devestation.
- Heavy use of ferilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. (Causing water pollution, decreased soil fertility, development of cancer.)
- Agricultural runoff: Causes chemicals to enter our water supply.
- Generous irrigation: Too much water is extracted from aquifers.
- Excessive fuel consumption.
2d. Soil Loss and Degredation: Land that is good for farming and grazing animals is being degraded worlwide.
- Soil erosion causes loss of topsoil, causing desertification. Farmland is unproductive.
- U.S. and Canada have the highest rates of soil erosion in the world.
- Salinization: Accumulation of mineral salts due to evaporation of excess irrigation water. Makes land unsuitable for growing crops.
3d. Green Revolutions: Dramatic increase in yield of crops in LDSs due to introduction of new varieites of crops. Still require high levels of fertilizer, water, and pesticides, so they cause the same problem as modern farming methods.
4d. Genetic Engineering: Can produce transgenic plants resistant to insects and herbicides. Soil erosion is minimized.
5d. Domestic Livestock: 2/3 of cropland is devoted to producing livestock feed. Therefore, raising livestock accouts for much of the pollution associated with farming.
- Problems: waste, water use for washing livestock, etc. (Mader 516-519)
E. Energy:
1e. Nonrenewable Sources: Nuclear power (approx. 6% of world's energy supply) and fossil fuels (approx. 75%).
- Nuclear power: Not used very much because of nuclear power dangers and radioactive wastes.
- Fossil Fuels: Oil, natural gas, and coal. Derived from compressed remains of ploants and animal that died many thousands of years ago. U.S. is only 5% of world's population, yet it uses more than half of the fossil fuel energy supply! Pollutants are released into the air as it burns.
2e. Fossil Fuels and Global Climate Change:
- Burning of fossil fuels and burning of forests has caused increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
- Human activities cause emission of other gases, too, such as methane. These are greenhouse gases, because they allow solar radiation to pass through but hinder the escape of infrared heat back into space.
- Global Warming: Earth may warm to temps never before experienced by living things. If this happens, glaciers will melt, sea levels will rise, and coastal cities could be threatened. Would endanger coral reefs, present assmeblage of species in ecosystems will be disrupted as species migrate north for cooler weather. Loss of species unable to migrate.
(Insert Global Warming picture / global.mitsubishielectric.com / http://global.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/solar/environment/main.html)
3e. Renewable Energy Sources: Hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar.
- Hydropower: Converts energy of falling water into electricity. Approx. 10% of electric power generated in US, and almost 98% of total renewable energy used.
- Geothermal Energy: Uranium, thorium, radium, and plutonium undergo radioactive decay below Earth's surface and heat the surrounding rocks. When they are in contact w/ water, it heats water. Can be piped up to surface for use.
- Wind Power: Space needed for wind farms that produce electricity is comparable to amount of land required by a coal-fired power plant or solar energy system. Expected to increase use in future.
(Insert Wind Farm picture / www.ronsaari.com / http://www.ronsaari.com/stockImages/windmills/WindFarmPalmSpringsCA.php)
- Energy and the Solar-Hydrogen Revolution: Solar energy must be collected, converted, and stored. Can be used for passive-solar heating of houses, and heat can be sotred in water tanks, rocks, bricks, etc.
- Photovoltaic (solar) cell: A wafer of electron-emitting metal is in contact with another metal that collects the eletrons and passes them along into wires in a steady stream. These cells can be placed on roofs to generate electricity. Can be used to create hydrogen fuel, to be used in future cars. (Mader 520-522)
F. Minerals: Nonrenewable raw materials in Earth's crust that can be extracted. Includes fossil fuels, nonmetallic raw materials, such as sand, gravel, and phophate; and metals, such as aluminum copper, iron, lead, and gold.
- Heavy metals are dangerous to humans: lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, tin, chromium, zinc, and copper. Used in electronics, medicines, paints, etc. Inhibit vital enzymes in body.
- Strip / surface mining: One of greatest threats to maintenance of ecosystem and biodiversity. Rain washes toxic waste deposits into streams and rivers.
1f. Hazardous Wastes: Nine most common: heavy metals, synthetic organic compounds, benzene, polychlorinated biphenyls, and chloroform.
- Chlorofluorocarbons: Type of halogenated hydrocarbon in which both chlorine and flourine atoms replace some of the hydrogen atoms. Thin ozone shield, which is essentail for protection of utraviolet radiation.
- Biological Magnification: Wastes that enter and accumulate in the fat or organisms, ans since they are not excreted, they become more and more concentrated as they pass along a food chain. (Mader 522-523)
III. Biodiversity
A. Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, described in terms of the number of different species.
- We are in biodiversity crisis: Number of extinctions expected to occur in the near future is unparallel in the history of the Earth.
B. Loss of Biodiversity is due to all of the following:
- Habitat Loss: Human occupation and expansion.
- Alien Species (Exotics): Nonnative members of an ecosystem. Humans introduce them to ecosystems due to colonization, horticulture, and agriculture, and accidental transport. Some are invasive, and crowd out native species.
- Pollution: Acid deposition (weakens trees), global warming (loss of habitat, etc.), ozone depletion (CFCs), and synthetic organic chemicals.
- Overexploitation: Too many individuals are taken from a wild population so it is reduced in number. ie. exotic pets. (Poaching, overfishing, etc.)
- Disease: Exposure to domestic animals and their pathogens occur when humans encroach on wildlife habitats.
(Insert Biodiversity Loss picture / www.greenfacts.org http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/l-3/7-climate-change-biodiversity-loss.htm)
C. Direct Value of Biodiversity: Direct value of wildlife is related to their medicianl value, agricultural value,and consumptive use value.
1c. Medicinal Value: Potent medicines are dervied from plants, fungus, some animals (ie horseshoe crab) and certain types of bacteria.
2c. Agricultural Value: Crops are dervied from wild plants that have been modified to be high producers. Biological pest control, bees pollinating plants, etc/
3c. Consumptive Use Value: Catching of fishes, crustatceans, and mammals. Products sold in marketplaces. Trees for wood, etc.
D. Indirect Value of Biodiversity: Services that are pervasive and not easily discernable.
- Waste Disposal: Decomposers break down dead organic matter and other types of wastes to inorganic nutrients that are used by the producers within ecosystems. If not for this service, Earth would be covered in waste. Some biological communities can break down and immobilize pollutants.
- Provision of freshwater: Water cycle supplies freshwater to terrestrial ecosystems. Provide us w/ fish and other food. "Sponge Effect": Forests soak up water and release it at a regular rate.
- Prevention of Soil Erosion: Intact ecosystems naturally retain soil and prevent soil erosion.
- Biogeochemical Cycles: Biodiversity within ecosystems contributes to the workings of the water, phophorus, nitrogen, carbon, and other biogeochemical cycles, which we depend on for freshwater.
- Regulation of Climate: Trees provide shade and reduce the need for fans and air conditioners. Forests ameliorate the climate because they take up carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide has a significant impact on global warming, which is increased with deforestation.
- Ecotourism: Relaxing in the wild! :) (Mader 524-530)
IV. Working Toward a Sustainable Society
A. Sustainable Society: One that could always provide the same amount of goods and services for future generations as it does at present. Biodiversity would also be preserved.
1a. Today's Unsustainable Society: Population growth and excessive resource consumption stresses the environment, including worldwide pollution and the extnction of wildlife.
(Insert Species Extinction by State picture / www.unl.edu / http://www.unl.edu/nac/conservation/atlas/Map_Html/Biodiversity/National/Species_Extinctions/Species_extinctions.htm)
2a. Characteristics of a Sustainable Society:
- Makes use of only renewable solar energy.
- Materials cycle through the various populations back to the producer.
- Protection of natural ecosystmes.
- Efficiency (cars, etc.)
3a. Rural Sustainability:
- Emphasis on preservation: ecosystems, agricultural land, groves of fruit trees, etc. Possible steps: plant cover crops, multiuse farming, replenish soil nutrients, low flow or trickle irrigation, increase planting of cultivars, use precision farming, use integrated pest management, etc.
4a. Urban Sustainability:
- Sharing of resources. Possible steps: Energy-efficient transportation system, solar or geothermal energy, utilize green roofs, improve storm-water management, plant native species grasses, create greenbelts, etc.
B. Assessing Economic Well-Being and Quality of Life:
- Gross National Product: Measurement of the flow of money from consumers to businesses, in the form of goods and services purchased. (Total costs of manufacturing, production and srvices in the form of salaries, wages, mortgage and rent, interets and loans, taxes, and profit. Use value, option value, existence value, aesthetic value, cultural value, and scientific and educational value are all factors. (Mader 530-533)
Ok... So I'm not going to lie... I had a REALLY hard time fitting the last part of your powerpoint into chapter 24. I felt like I was reading the wrong chapter, or something. So, I'm including it here in the end:
In a community, relationships among species can be beneficial, damaging or neutral:
Symbiotic: mutually beneficial, both species benefit
Parasitic: one species benefits (“parasite”) and the other is harmed (“host”)
Commensal: One species benefits, the other is unharmed
Mutualism: both species benefit, like symbiosis, but it may appear one species has the advantage, but evolutionarily, over the long-term, both benefit
Predation: Usually considered parasitic, where the predator is the parasite, but can also be seen as mutualistic.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 26)
A. Relationships Among Species
- We do still have ecological relationships with “wild” species. Examples:
- Hunt mushrooms
- Create game reserves
- Create national parks
- Household and urban/rural “pests” (e.g. molds, sewer rats)
- Symbiotic micro-organisms (skin and mouth bacteria)
- Disease-causing micro-organisms
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 26)
B. Our Relationships w/ Domesticated Species
- But mostly we have tight relationships with domesticated species. Basis for ecological relationship:
- Food and agriculture (by far most common—food crops and animals)
- Transportation (“beasts of burden”)
- Care and protection (pets)
- Laboratory study and production
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 29)
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