Compendium Review Chapter 13

Comparison of Somatic Motor and Autonomic Motor Pathway

Nerve

Lobes of Cerebral Hemisphere

Ventricles of Brain

Spinal Cord 2

Spinal Cord 1

Synapse

Myelinated Sheath

Action Potential

Path of Nerve Impulse

Myelin Sheath

Motor Neuron

Sensory Neuron

Neuroglia

Central Nervous System, "real"

Central Nervous System Labeled

Central Nervous System Chart

I. Overview of the Nervous System
II. The Central Nervous System
III. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
IV. The Peripheral Nervous System
V. Drug Abuse

I. Overview of the Nervous System
A. Two major divisions:
1a. Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord, located midline of body.
2a. Peripheral Nervous System: The nerves. Lie outside of the CNS.
3a. Three functions of the Nervous System:
1. Receives sensory input. "Sensory receptors in skin and other organs respond to external and internal stimuli by generating nerve impulses that travel by was of the PNS to the CNS."
2. CNS performs "integration"- it takes the input from all over the body and summarizes it.
3. CNS creates "motor output"- the nerve impulses from the CNS go to the muscles and glands by way of the PNS. (Mader 248)
(Insert central nervous system chart picture / www.ling.mq.edu.au http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/ling/units/sph302/neuroling)
(Insert central nervous system labeled picture / www.flickr.com http://www.flickr.com/photos/rbjaneite/2219438029/)
(Insert central nervous system "real" picture / www.flickr.com http://www.flickr.com/photos/57368254@N00/142842721/)
B. Nervous Tissue
1b. Contains two types of cells: Neurons (cells that transmit nerve impulses between the parts of the nervous system; these are the main cells of the nervous system)(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 9)and (Mader 249), and Neuroglia (support and nourish the neurons.)
(Insert Neuroglia picture / www.afh.bio.br / http://www.afh.bio.br/nervoso/nervoso2.asp)
- Neurons transmit the messages, while the axon carries the message.
- "Dendrites connect to other cells, usually neurons or muscle cells." A single cell can connect to thousands of others through these dendrites.
- Most neurons do not divide or die, so they last a lifetime! (Frolich PowerPoint Slides 2 and 9).
C. Neuron Structure: There are three types of neurons.
1c. Sensory Neuron: Takes nerve impulses (messages) from a sensory receptor (special structures that detect changes in the environment) to the CNS. (Mader 249) Sensory Neurons- action potential brings message to brain or spinal cord with sensory input information from sensory receptors. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 20)
- They are bundled in the nerves.
- Bring in information from almost every tissue, organ, and body structure (except brain and spinal cord.) (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 12)
(Insert Sensory Neuron picture / science.kennesaw.edu http://science.kennesaw.edu/~jdirnber/Bio2108/Lecture/LecPhysio/PhysioNervous.html)
2c. Interneuron: Lies entirely within the CNS. Can receive information from the sensory neurons and from other interneurons in the CNS. Then, they sum up all the nerve impulses they have gotten from these neurons and communicate with motor neurons.
3c. Motor Neuron: Takes nerve impulses away from the CNS (brain or spinal cord) to an effector (muscle fiber or gland). (Mader 249)
- Also bundled in nerves.
- Bring information to every muscle and gland, including blood vessels. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 12)
* All neurons use the same methods to transmit nerve impulses along neurons and across synapses. (Mader Text Website Chapter 13 Review)
- Effectors carry out our responses to environmental changes, internal or external._
(Insert Motor neuron picture / www.nicksnowden.net / http://www.nicksnowden.net/Module_4pages/ions_nerves_and_muscles.htm)
4c. All neurons have 3 parts:
1. Cell Body: Contains nucleus and other organelles.
2. Dendrites: Many short extensions that receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons. These signals can result in nerve impulses are are then conducted by an axon.
3. Axon: Portion of a neuron that conducts nerve impulses. When present in nerves, it is called a nerve fiber.
D. Myelin Sheath: A protective covering on axons. (Mader 249)
- A single neuron has hundreds or thousands of axons,and each axon is surrounded by the myelin sheath. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 10)
1d. In PNS, the myelin sheath is formed by a type of neuroglia called Schwann cells, which contain myelin (a lipid substance) in their plasma membranes. Myelin sheath develops when the Schwann cells wrap themselves around an axon many times. The sheath is broken in places because each neuroglia cell covers only a portion of the axon. These gaps are called nodes of Ranvier.
2d. Long axons have a myelin sheath, short do not.
3d. In the CNS, white matter is white because of the myelin sheath, and gray matter is gray because it does not have myelinated axons.
4d. In the PNS, myelin makes nerve fibers appear white and glistening, and also serves as insulation. Also plays important part in nerve regeneration. Serves as a passageway for new fiber growth when an axon is severed.
(Insert Myelin Sheath picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 11)
2d. In the CNS, oligodendrocytes cover the axons.
3d. Disorders: Multiple Sclerosis (an attack on the myelin by the body's immune system), and Leukodystrophies (caused by loss of myelin from axons.) (Mader 249)
E. Nerve Impulses: Convey information within the nervous system. 1e. voltmeter measures the potential difference between two sides of the axonal membrane, which allows us to study the nerve impulse.
(Insert nerve impulse picture / www.phschool.com http://www.phschool.com/atschool/science_activity_library/path_nerve_impulse.html)
2e. Resting Potential: The axon is NOT conducting an impulse. Voltmeter records a membrane potential of approx. -65mV (millivolts). This implies that the inside of the neuron is more negative than the outside. (Mader 250)
- Happens in thousands of a second, and constantly maintains resting state for all neurons and muscle cells so they are ready to “fire”." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 13)
- During resting potential, there are more sodium ions (Na+)outside the axon than inside, and the concentration of potassium ions (K+) is greater inside the axon than outside.
- The sodium potassium pump is responsible for the unequal distribution of these ions, because it actively trnaports sodium out of and potassium into the axon across the membrane.
- Membrane is permeable to K+ ions but not Na+ ions, so there are always more positive ions outside the membrane than inside. (Mader 250)
3e. Action Potential: "Ability to sense environment, process information rapidly and respond requires rapid transmission of messages within body." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 8)
4e. It is a rapid change in polarity across an axonal membrane as the nerve impulse occurs.
- Threshold: The level of depolarization that occurs from a stimulus to the axonal membrane. This is when the action potential occurs. Requires two types of gated channel proteins that open to allow Na+ and K+ to pass through the membrane. (Mader 250)
- "Gates” are actually protein structures in cell membrane. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 15)
- When an action potential occurs, the gates of sodium channels open first, and Na+ flows into the axon. As Na+ moves inside the axon, the membrane potential goes from -65 mV to +40 mV. This is called depolarization because the charge insde the axon goes from netative to positive.
- Next, the gates of potassium channels open, and K+ flows outside the axon. As this occurs, the action potential changes from +40 mV back to -65 mV, and is called repolarization because the inside of the axon resumes a negative charge as the K+ exits.
- After an action potential has passed, the sodium potassium pump restores the resting potential by moving the K+ back to the inside and Na+ back to the outside. (Mader 250-251)
- "Voltage change from negative resting potential to positive action potential and back to negative resting potential can all happen within 3/1000 of a second." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 17)
(Insert Action Potential picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 15)
F. Propagation of an Action Potential: Self-propagating: Each action potential generates another along the length of the axon.
1f. If an axon is unmyelinated, the action potential at one locale stimulates an adjacent part of the axon's membrane to produce an action potential.
- In myelinated axons, an action potential at one Ranvier node causes an action potential at the next node, and this type of conduction is called saltatory conduction, because the nerve impulse jumps from node to node. (Mader 251) Simply stated, "action potential can jump to nodes where cell membrane is exposed". "It saves energy (so entire membrane doesn’t depolarize) and makes action potential move faster". (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 16)
- In myelinated axons, the nerve impulse is more than 100 m / second, compared to 1.0 m/ second in thin, unmyelinated axons.
(Insert Myelinated Sheath picture / www.neuropathologyweb.org http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1cOligodendroglia.html)
2f. Refractory Period: Occurs immediately after an impulse has passed by each successive portion of an axon. During this period, the sodium gates are unable to open, and therefore, the action potential cannot move backward and instead moved down an axon toward its branches. (Mader 251)
G. The Synapse
1g. Axon Terminal: The small swelling on the tips of axon branches. Each of these terminals lies close to either the dendrite or the cell body of another neuron. This region of close proximity is called a synapse.
2g. Synaptic cleft: At the synapse, the synaptic cleft separates the sending neuron from the receiving neuron.
3g. Neurotransmitters: Since nerve impulses are unable to jump the synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters carry the impulse across a synapse. They are stored in synaptic vesicles in the axon terminals.
- Three steps: 1st, Nerve impulses traveling along an axon reach an axon termimal. 2nd, Calcium ions enter the terminal and stimulate synaptic vesicles to merge with the sending membrane, and 3rd, neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft, and they spread across the cleft to the receiving membrane, where they bind with receptor proteins. This initiates a response. Once finished, the neurotransmitter is removed from the cleft.
4g. Receiving neuron can be excitation or inhibition: in excitation, the sodium gate opens and sodium diffuses into the receiving neuron. An excitatory neurotransmitter produces a potential change called a signal that drives the neuron closer to an action potential. In inhibition, potassium enters the receiving neuron. Produces a signal that drives the neuron farther from an action potential (Mader 252)
(Insert Synapse picture / www.epilepsy.com / http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/brain.html)
5g. Neurotransmitter Molecules: Many drugs that affect the nervous system act by interfering with the action of neurotransmitters.
- Drugs can enhance or block the release of a neurotransmitter, mimic the action of it, block the receptor, or interfere with the removal of neurotranmitters from a synaptic cleft.
6g. Synaptic Integration: The summing up of excitatory and inhibitory signals in the dendrite and cell body of postsynaptic neuron. (Mader 253)
II. The Central Nervous System
A. The Spinal Cord and Brain:
- Protected by bone.
- Spinal cord is surrounded by vertebrae.
- Brain is enclosed in skull.
- Both are wrapped in protective membranes called meninges.
- Spaces between the meninges are filled with cerebrospinal fluid, to cushion and protect the CNS. This fluid is also found within the ventricles of the brain and in the central canal of the spinal cord.
- Brain has four ventricles, which are chamgers that connect with one another and produce and serve as a reservoir for cerebrospinal fluid.
1a. This is where sensory information is received and motor control is initiated.
2a. CNS is made up of two types of nervous tissue: gray matter (contains cell bodies and short, nonmyelinated fibers)and white matter (contains myelinated axons that run together in bundles called tracts.
B. The Spinal Cord: extends from base of brain through a large opening in skull (foramen magnum) and into the vertebral canal formed by openings in the vertebrae.
1b. Structure: Cross section shows a central canal, gray matter, and white matter. - Individual vertebra protects the spinal cord.
- Spinal nerves project from the cord between the vertebrae that make up the vertebral column.
- Intervertebral disks separate the vertabrae.
- Central canal contains cerebrospinal fluid, just like the meninges that protect the spinal cord.
- Gray matter: centrally located, shape of H. This is where parts of sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons are found.
- Dorsal root has sensory vibers entering the gray matter.
- Ventral root has motor fibers exiting gray matter.
- Both roots join before the spinal nerve leaves the vertebral canal as a mixed nerve.
- White matter occurs in areas around the gray matter. Contains tracts that both take info to the brain, and tracts taking info away from brain.
- Left side of brain controls right side of body, and right side of brain controls left side of body. (Mader 254)
C. Functions of Spinal Cord: Provides communication between brain and peripheral nerves that leave the cord. Ex. Something touches your hand, sensory receptors generate nerve impulses that go through sensory fibers to the spinal cord and up ascending tracts to the brain.
1c. Gate Control Theory of Pain: Suggests that the tracts in the spinal cord have "gates", which control the flow of pain messages from the peripheral nerves to the brain. Endorphins can temporarily block pain messages.
2c. Brain initiates voluntarily control over our limbs. Motor impulses that originate in the brain pass down tracts to the spinal cord and out to our muscles by way of motor fibers.
3c. Spinal cord is center for thousands of reflex arcs.
- Stimulus causes sensory receptors to generate nerve impulses that travel in sensory axons to the spinal cord.
- Interneurons integrate the data that comes to them and relay signals to motor neurons.
- Motor axons respond to the stimulus by causing skeletal muscles to contract.
(Mader 255)
- Ex. Spinal cord reflex:
- Sensory neurons action potential bring in pain information from skin.
- Neurons of spinal cord process information, take decision.
- Motor neurons carry output to muscles to move limb away from pain.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 21)
(Insert Spinal Cord pictures / www.ee.umd.edu / http://www.ee.umd.edu/courses/enee719v.S2002/figures/funfigs.html) & ( http://www.uhseast.com/153912.cfm http://www.uhseast.com/153912.cfm)
D. The Brain
1d. 4 Ventricles: Two lateral ventricles (associated with cerebrum), the third ventricle (associated with diencephalon), and the fourth ventricle (associated with brain stem and cerebellum). (Mader 256)
(Insert Ventricles of Brain picture /universe-review.ca / http://universe-review.ca/option2.htm )
2d. The Cerebrum: (AKA telencephalon)makes up the largest portion of the brain in humans. Last to receive sensory input and carry out integration before commanding voluntary motor responses. Communicates with and coordinates activities of other parts of brain.
3d. Cerebral Hemispheres: Two halves of brain, called left and right cerebral hemispheres, divided by the longitudinal fissure.
- Each hemisphere is divided into lobes by sulcus. (Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe... and each is associated with particular functions.)
4d. Cerebral Cortex: Thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres. Accounts for sensation, voluntary movement, and all thought processes when awake.
5d. Primary Motor and Sensory Areas of Cortex:
- Primary Motor Area: Frontal lobe, before central sulcus. Begins voluntary commands to skeletal muscles. Each part of body is controlled by a certain section.
- Primary Somatosensory Area: Just dorsal to central sulcus in parietal lobe. Sensory info from skin and skeletal muscles arrives here, where each part of body is represented sequentially.
(Insert Lobes of Cerebral Hemisphere picture / www.indiana.edu / http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/cer_hemi.htm)
6d. Association Areas: Places where integration occurs.
7d. Processing Centers: In cortex. Receive info from other association areas and performs higher-level analytical functions.
- Prefrontal Area: Association area in frontal lobe, receives info from other association areas and uses it to reason and plan our actions. Integration in this area accounts for critical thinking and formulating appropriate behaviors.
- Wernicke's area and Broca's area: Two processing centers located in left cerbral cortex only. Wernicke's helps us understand written and spoken word and sends info to Broca's area. Broca's helps with grammatical function and directs primary motor area to stimulate appropriate muscles for speaking and writing.
8d. Central White Matter: Composes much of the rest of the cerebrum.
E. The Diencephalon: Region that encircles the third ventricle. Hypothalamus and thalamus are located here.
- Hypothalamus: Forms floor of third ventricle. An integrating center that helps maintain homeostasis by regulating sleep, hunger, thirst, body temp, and water balance. Controls pituitary gland and is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
- Thalamus: Two masses of gray matter that are in the sides and roof of third ventricle. Receives all sensory input except smell. Involved in arousal of cerebrum, and is involved with higher mental functions like memory and emotions.
F. The Cerebellum: Under occipital lobe of cerbrum, separated from brain stem by fourth ventricle.
- Made up of two portions, each composed of white matter.
- Receives sensory input from eyes, ears, joints, and muscles about position of body parts.
- Receives motor output from cerebral cortex about where parts should be located.
- After integration, cerebellum sends motor impulses by way of brain stem to skeletal muscles. Thus, maintains posture and balance. Ensures that muscles work together for voluntary movements.
G. The Brain Stem: Contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
1g. Midbrain: Relay station for tracts passing between cerebrum and spinal cord or cerebellum. - Reflex centers for visual, auditory, and tactile responses.
2g. Pons: "Bridge". Contains bundles of axons traveling between cerebellum and rest of CNS.
- Helps medulla oblongata regulate breathing rate and has reflex centers associated with head movements in response to stimuli.
3g. Medulla Oblongata: Has a number of reflex centers for regulating heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure. Also contains the reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccuping, and swallowing.
- Lies superior to spinal cord.
H. Reticular Formation: Complex network of nuclei (masses of gray matter) and fibers that extend the length of brain stem. Receives sensory signals and sends them up to higher center, and motor signals, which it sends to spinal cord. (Mader 258-259)
III. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions: Intimately involved in our emotions and higher mental functions.
A. Linked structures in cerebrum that is a functional grouping rather than anatomical.
- Blends primitive emotions and higher mental functions.
1a. Amygdala: Within limbic system. Can cause experiences to have emotional overtones, and it creates the sensation of fear.
2a. Hippocampus: Plays crucial role in learning and memory. Information gateway during learning process.
B. Higher Mental Functions:
1b. Memory:
- Short-term memory: Prefrontal area. Lies dorsal to forehead.
- Long-term memory: Mixture of semantic memory (numbers, words, etc.) and episodic memory (persons, events, etc.)
- Skill memory: Involved in performing motor activities like riding a skateboard. All motor areas of cerebrum below the level of consciousness.
C. Long-Term Memory Storage and Retrieval: Long-term memory stores in bits and pieces throughout sensory association areas of cerebral cortex.
D. Long-Term Potentiation: Involved in memory storage. Occurs when synapses are used intensively for a short period of time, and they release more neurotransmitters. (Mader 260-261)
IV. The Peripheral Nervous System
A. Lies outside central nervous system, and contains the nerves. When they come from brain, they are cranial nerves. From spinal cord, they are spinal nerves.
- All nerves take impulses to and from the CNS. All are composed of axons, the long part of neurons.
(Insert Nerve picture / fig.cox.miami.edu / http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~lfarmer/BIL265)
1a. Humans have 12 pairs of cranial nerves attached to brain. Some are sensory, some are motor, and others are mixed nerves that have both sensory and motor fibers.
- Cranial nerves are most concerned with head, neck and facial regions.
2a. Spinal nerves: 31 pairs from either side of spinal cord.
- Roots separate the axons of sensory neurons from axons of motor neurons.
- Dorsal Root Ganglion: Cell body of a sensory neuron. Ganglion: Collection of cell bodies outside the CNS.
- All spinal nerves are mixed nerves, and each spinal nerve serves the particular region of the body.
B. Somatic System: These nerves serve the skin, skeletal muscles, and tendons.
- Some nerves take sensory info from external sensory receptors to the CNS and motor commands away from it to the skeletal muscles.
- In somatic system, some responses to stimulus are not voluntary, but automatic. These are called reflexes.
C. The Reflex Arc: The path of a reflex.
- A series of responses occur when interneurons carry nerve impulses to the brain.
- The brain makes you aware of the stimulus and directs other reactions to it. In fact, you don't even feel pain until the brain receives and interprets info.
D. Autonomic System: Also in PNS. Regulates the activity of cardiac and smooth muscles and glands.
- Divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Activation of these two systems generally causes opposite responses.
- Both have different functions, but also similarities: Both function automatically and in an involuntary manner, they innervate all internal organs, and they utilize two neurons and one ganglion for each impulse.
1d. Sympathetic Division: Most arise from the middle of the spinal cord and almost immediately terminate in ganglia that are near the cord.
- In this division, the preganglionic fiber is short, and the postganglionic fiber that makes contact with an organ is long.(Mader 264-265)
- Important in emergency situations: Speed up (“fight or flight”) response. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22)
2d. Parasympathetic Division: Includes a few cranial nerves and fibers that come from the bottom (sacral) portion of the spinal cord.
-Pregangliotic fiber is long, and the postganglionic fiber is short because the ganglia lie near or within the organ.
- Promotes all internal responses we associate with a relaxed state. (Mader 265) "Slow down (“meditative”) response". (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22) (The "rest and digest" system.)
(Insert Comparison of Somatic Motor and Autonomic Motor Pathway picture / Frolich PowerPoint Slide 22)
E. Degenerative Brain Disorders
1e. Alzheimer Disease: Characterized by loss of memory. Usually occurs in those over 65. Abnormal neurons are present throughout the brain but mostly in hippocampus and amygdala. Neurons end up dying.
2e. Parkinson Disease: Gradual loss of memory control. Wide-eyed, unblinking expression, involuntary tremors of fingers, muscular rigidity, and a shuffle. (Mader 266)
V. Drug Abuse
A. Drugs affect nervous system in two general affects:
- Affecting the limbic system,
- Either promote or decrease the action of a particular neurotransmitter.
- Stimulants: increase likelihood of neuron excitation.
- Depressants: decrease likelihood of neuron excitation.
B. Drug Abuse: Taking a drug at a dose level and under circumstances that increase the potential for a harmful effect. Psychological and physical dependence.
C. Alcohol: Readily crosses cell membranes.
- Causes damage to several tissues and vital organs. Liver can become scarred and impaired. Can damage frontal lobe of brain, decrease overall brain size, and increase size of ventricles. Brain damage, coma and death can occur if blood alcohol level is extremely high.(Mader 267)
D. Nicotine: small molecule, stimulant. Rapidly deliverd to CNS, especially midbrain. Binds to neurons in CNS, it increases skeletal muscle activity, heart rate, and blood pressure. Highly addictive.
E. Cocaine: Stimulant that interferes with the "re-uptake of dopamine at synapses". Highly addictive. Results in sleeplessness, lack of appetite, increased sex drive, tremors, and "cocaine psychosis", which is like paranoid schizophrenia. Can result in cardiac and /or respiratory arrest, and death.
F. Methamphetamine: Synthetic. Stimulant. Reverses effects of fatigue, maintains wakefulness, and elevates the mood of the user. Can lead to amphetamine psychosis resulting in paranoia, hallucinations, aggressive behavior.
G. Heroin: From sap of opium poppy. Highly addictive depressent. Pain-killing effects. Depress breathing, block pain pathways, cloud mental function, and can cause nausea and vomiting.
H. Marijuana: Mild euphoria, alterationsin vision and judgment. Hallucinations, anxiety, depression, rapid flow of ideas, body image distortions, paranoia, and psychotic symptoms can result. (Mader 268-269)

Self and Unit Evaluation

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am most proud of the thoroughness of my compendium reviews, the quiz that I did well on, and the lab projects that I put quite a bit of time into.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? The quiz I did NOT do well on, and increased absorption of material from the compendium reviews.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? A- I still worked my tooshy off. :)

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? I need to review material more thoroughly, and take more time doing so, before I take the quizzes.



REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I loved the online labs and lab project. I thought they were very interesting and I learned a great deal about blood pressure, etc.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
Again, when I was doing the compendium reviews.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? I had online conversations with other students who helped me with certain questions I had. I appreciated them taking the time to help me out.


What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? None. I truly can't remember any at all.


What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.) The actual data from my lab project surprised me, at times. I had expected different end results when it came down to some of the activities I participated in for the final lab project.

Exercise Physiology Lab

Note: When I created this in word first, my sole intention was to make a nice, neat chart for my data table, which I did. Of course, it wouldn't transfer, again, so the table below is not half as nice and organized as it was to begin with.) :(

Metabolic Measurements Graph

Activity 3: Trampoline

Activity 2: Vacuuming (Sorry it's blurry!)

"Activity" 1: Sleeping

Method of taking my blood pressure / respiration: borrowed machine from my dad!
Metabolic Rate Lab Project
I. Introduction: My task for this lab was to measure my metabolic rates in several different situations. First, I needed to get a baseline reading of my respiration, pulse, and blood pressure. Once I had done this 3 times, I averaged the three readings to get a mean. I was to then decide on three activities I would participate in, and create hypotheses as to how I think those readings would be affected upon completion of each activity. Before I get into my hypotheses, I would like to present a quick review of how the circulatory system in relation to these readings.
When blood leaves the heart, it surges into the arteries. This surge makes their elastic walls stretch from the pressure exerted, but they almost immediately return to their normal state. This happens very rhythmically, and it can actually be felt in the form of a pulse. A person can feel this pulse by gently placing his or her fore and middle fingers on the outer border of the palm side of the wrist. So, the pulse itself is actually a measurement of the heart’s rate of beating. Normal pulse rate ranges between 60 and 80 beats per minute. Respiration is the number of breaths a person takes per minute.
Blood pressure is the pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel. The instrument used to measure a person’s blood pressure is called a sphygmomanometer. There are two measurements to be taken in regards to blood pressure: the systolic pressure, and the diastolic pressure. Systolic pressure is a measurement of the ejection of blood from the heart. This is the “highest” arterial pressure. In contrast, the lowest arterial pressure is the diastolic pressure. This happens when the heart ventricles are relaxing. Normal resting blood pressure for an adult is between 95 and 135 (systolic) / 50-90 (diastolic). High blood pressure is said to be hypertension, while low blood pressure is called hypotension.
Hypertension is extremely dangerous. When blood moves through the arteries at a higher pressure than normal, it can cause a heart attack, stroke, or even kidney failure. High blood pressure is linked to atherosclerosis, which is a disease in which plaque builds up in the lumen of the blood vessel and this interferes with the flow of blood. Stroke, heart attack, and aneurysm are also associated with high blood pressure. A stroke happens when a small cranial arteriole bursts or is blocked by an embolus (clot in the blood). Lack of oxygen causes a portion of the brain to die, and it results in paralysis or death. A heart attack occurs when a portion of the heart muscle dies due to a lack of oxygen. Finally, an aneurysm is a ballooning of a blood vessel, most often the abdominal artery or an artery leading to the brain. There are several things that contribute to high blood pressure, such as a diet high is salt, genetics, age, lifestyle (lack of exercise), and weight.
2. My Hypotheses: I always found it very interesting that my father, even at rest, has incredible “swings” in his blood pressure. So, for my lab, I decided to do three activities that varied in the amount of energy I was expending. I had been told by a physician once that your basal body temperature is lowest right before you get out of bed in the morning. I wanted to see if the same was true for blood pressure. So, because I took my “resting” measurements in the middle of the day, I decided to track my blood pressure , pulse, and respiration when I first wake in the morning. My first hypothesis, then, is that my pulse, respiration rate, and blood pressure will be lower / lowest in the morning, just before leaving bed. I then wanted to find and “intermediate” activity that would allow me to expend an intermediate level of energy. I chose vacuuming my house.  My first reason was because my vacuum is extremely heavy, and I know that I expend energy maneuvering it around the house to vacuum several rooms. Hypothesis #2 was that my pulse, respiration and blood pressure would increase during this activity. Finally, to expend a good deal of energy to see how it affects my metabolism, I decided to jump on our trampoline for ten minutes. Hyposthesis #3: My pulse, respiration, and blood pressure would all increase and be at their highest during this activity, when I was exerting the most energy.
3. Materials and Methods: Please see pictures above with corresponding captions.
4. Metabolic Rate Data Table
Rep 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Rep 4 Rep 5 MEAN
Baseline
Pulse 84 73 77 76 76 77
Respiration 24 24 22 26 28 25
Systolic 108 102 110 106 108 107
Diastolic 67 83 64 73 69 71
Sleeping
Pulse 76 76 75 76
Respiration 24 22 24 23
Systolic 111 110 110 110
Diastolic 63 54 60 59
Vacuuming
Pulse 84 94 95 91
Respiration 26 26 26 26
Systolic 124 120 128 124
Diastolic 110 102 78 97
Trampoline
Pulse 102 105 103 103
Respiration 40 40 40 40
Systolic 126 136 134 132
Diastolic 66 80 76 74

(Since pictures will not insert in the correct places in this blog, please see above for my graph of each activity and my metabolic measurements.)
5. Analysis of Data
Hypothesis 1: My pulse, respiration rate, and blood pressure will be lower / lowest in the morning, just before leaving bed.
Results: Half correct, half incorrect! With my mean being 110/59, my diastolic measurement was the lowest of all activities, including my baseline measurements, but my systolic number was 3 points higher than my baseline systolic measurement. Even so, the systolic number WAS lower than when I was vacuuming and when I jumped on the trampoline. My respiration was also the lowest of all other activities (including baseline), so my hypothesis was correct in this regard, as well.
Hypothesis 2: My pulse, respiration and blood pressure would increase during the vacuuming of several rooms of my house, and be the second highest of the four.
Results: My hypothesis was correct! With the mean being 124/97, both numbers were higher than my baseline and from when I first wake up in the morning. My respiration was also higher.
Hypothesis 3: My pulse, respiration, and blood pressure would all increase and be at their highest during the last activity: jumping on the trampoline for 10 minutes.
Results: Half correct, half incorrect! While my systolic measurement was the highest of all activities at 132, (which would make part of the hypothesis correct), I was shocked to learn that my diastolic number was actually LOWER than it was when I was vacuuming. In fact, it was significantly lower. (97 vacuuming and 74 on the trampoline.) My respiration was the highest of all activities, so my hypothesis was correct in this regard.
6. Problems with Your Data or Technique: At first, I figured the blood pressure machine must have malfunctioned or something, I considered re-doing all three repetitions on the trampoline, but then I remembered Professor Frolich’s words: “Be true to your data”. The machine wouldn’t have malfunctioned all three times, and my numbers were pretty comparable, overall, so I am going with them. Then, I tried to figure out reasons why the lower number would be off like that. I thought that it may be possible that I actually “worked” harder pushing the vacuum around than I did jumping. I think that it is different kinds of “work”. Jumping on the trampoline is great for getting your pulse and respiration up, but it really isn’t that difficult. However, pushing the vacuum around is actually a little strenuous! (I know… it sounds ridiculous.) But really, the machine itself is very, very heavy. It is not easy to maneuver, and I have several rooms in my house that get vacuumed in one “session”. I also wondered if heat affects your blood pressure in any way. When I was jumping on the trampoline, it was evening; there was a breeze outside and it was actually nice. However, when I was vacuuming my house, it was about 80 degrees and I was holding my 1 year old daughter during parts of it. I’m not sure, but I guess it may be possible that I was actually exerting more energy during this activity. All in all, I don’t know why the results were different than I expected, but my overall hypothesis was only half correct. Same goes for my diastolic measurement being higher than my baseline reading for the activity of sleep. For the life of me, I can’t figure that one out. ?
7. In conclusion, I think that, for the most part, the more energy you are exuding, the higher the body’s metabolic rate. I know that my last hypothesis wasn’t altogether proven, but as I’ve said, I’ve also seen my father’s blood pressure change fairly dramatically in a small amount of time without him even moving! There may have been other factors going on with my body that I’m not even aware would change my readings. I jumped on the trampoline on different days, too, so it wasn’t even a one time “thing” that was affecting those readings. I find this discrepancy in my “research” confusing, overall.
In order for our bodies to get the oxygen they need, air is breathed in, and it moves into the lungs through the bronchial tubes until it enters air sacs called alveoli. This diffuses into blood capillaries and then enters the circulatory system. The first thing that receives oxygen in the body is the heart. The veins in the heart then carry carbon dioxide to the lungs to be exhaled. Next, the arteries in the lungs carry the oxygen rich blood to the cells within the hemoglobin. It makes sense to me, then, that when you are exercising, or participating in any activity that requires the expenditure of energy, your heart beats faster. Your respiration increases, because your body is trying to get more oxygen to the cells. Because of both of these things, blood pulses through the arteries faster and harder, and therefore, your metabolic rates increase.

Ethical Issues Essay: Food and Nutrition

Unit 2 Ethical Issues Essay
“Each year, 76 million Americans get sick and 5,000 die from food borne illnesses” (From “FoodRoutes”). In addition, approximately 34% of adults today are obese. The number of people who suffer from cardiovascular disease and Type 2 diabetes continues to climb. All of these facts point to the reality that, in general, Americans are not eating a well-balanced, healthy diet. I’m sure that there are a multitude of reasons for this. In today’s society, people are extremely busy. An average family has two working parents, and children who not only go to school, but are involved in a plethora of extracurricular activities. Imagine a day in the life the typical “soccer mom”: wake up, get kids ready for school, drive to school, go to work, work 8-hr shift, rush home, bring “Joe” to soccer and “Jane” to piano lessons, pick kids up, drive home. Only SuperMom would have the energy after a day like this to go out to her home-grown garden, pick some beautiful, fresh vegetables, then go in to make a lovely and delicious home-cooked meal. So, what happens? Pre-packaged, frozen , fast food, microwavable meals. It’s a matter of convenience in a fast-paced world. A lack of exercise is also a major factor in the nutrition dilemma, and again, I’m sure there are different reasons people choose not to exercise.
Perhaps another reason Americans find it difficult to eat well-balanced meals is because of the conflicting information we receive from the supposed experts about what really is healthy or unhealthy for us. We shouldn’t eat too much meat because of saturated fats. So, as Michael Pollan points out, Americans react by not eating as much meat, but they then load up on carbs, not necessarily understanding that carbs are probably worse for them than the meat! What happens next? The Atkins diet emerges, and people cling desperately to that diet in order to find a way to shed the pounds they gained from eating all the carbs. Feels pretty cyclical, to me. In addition, many Americans are uninformed when it comes to a healthy diet. I, for example, had no idea how many calories were in the foods that I eat regularly until I used the Mind, Body, Soul calculator and saw it right in front of me.
What are we actually eating? In the 1980’s, the “Age of nutritionism” began. Food began being re-engineered to contain the nutrients that we supposedly so desperately need. This is good for business, because even unhealthy foods could be engineered to become healthy. (I truly appreciated this point make by Mr. Pollan, when he mentioned that Cocoa Puffs have been engineered to contain whole grains.) Something about this whole idea makes me shudder; I’d much rather eat something that was naturally high in whole grains rather than junk-food engineered to be that way.
I do not believe that the common, average family eats to be culturally and spiritually satisfied. In complete honesty, I don’t think people care enough about food to eat in such a manner. Most people eat to fill the whole that is either hunger-related or psychological. For many, food has become a crutch; some find comfort in food when they are feeling depressed. Others will eat anything that tastes good when they are hungry, regardless of how good it is for them. Many eat conveniently, as mentioned above, because they do not have the energy to cook for spiritual or cultural reasons. I’m probably a prime example of this, because as embarrassing as it is to say, I don’t even “get” what eating to satisfy the spirit even means! My family and I do not cook food that is important to our culture. We cook food that we enjoy eating, and as often as I can, I try and make sure there is nutritional value in what we put in our mouths. In fact, I can say with pride that my daughters are the only 1 and 3 year olds I know who enjoy eating their vegetables. However, I would be lying if I said that I wasn’t the “soccer mom” I described above whom sometimes relies on whatever is fast and easy before I collapse from exhaustion.
I read the article entitled, “Live the Slow Life with Food.” I could appreciate the concept of “slow food”, i.e. coming together as a food community, connecting producers and co-producers, supporting the local farmers… enjoying good, clean food. As much as I can enjoy the idea, I think that it is not a common occurrence for a simple reason: it is unrealistic. In this day and age, in my town, people don’t come together for much of anything, let alone to share a meal. (Sad, but true.) People tend to do what is most convenient, not what is necessarily best. Should we take the time to enjoy life with family and friends, as suggested in this article, through food? Absolutely! But how do we usually do that? By meeting at a restaurant and sharing a meal that we have no idea where it came from or who produced it. Or, we do it in the privacy of our own homes with home-cooked meals that we get from the grocery store, and again, have no idea where the ingredients actually originated. I just think that, for most people, they truly don’t care where the food came from. Again, in the interest of being completely honest, I have to say that when I read the suggestions this article made as to how to live the “slow” life, I laughed out loud when I processed the following two statements: 1. Make pasta from scratch. (Kiddin’ me?! I can hardly cook chicken for my family without retching (vegetarian) and burning it… make my own pasta?! WHEN?) And 2., (and I quote) “Try seductively squeezing your own orange juice…” ? Only a true food enthusiast would find squeezing orange juice seductive. I can hardly even relate the two, but I do find it amusing. As I’ve said, I just don’t think people care enough about food to find anything sensual in squeezing juice out of an orange. (Not that I don’t think food can be sensual, but squeezing orange juice?!)
So, now that I’ve gone ahead and labeled myself as one of those who doesn’t necessarily care about food, let me say that I do care about what my family and I ingest. If I had a choice, I would love to grow my own vegetables, or buy them at the local farmers market to support my immediate economy. However, I’ve been to our farmer’s market, and it is not a “little” more expensive than my friendly, neighborhood Safeway, it is ridiculously more expensive. I know that my family cannot spend that much more money on local food than I would at Safeway: not in today’s economy. Yes, the taste and freshness would be exceptional, I’m sure. My mother had a HUGE garden when we were kids and my siblings and I spent hours and hours picking the fresh fruits and vegetables and we enjoyed them constantly… even unwashed, polished off on our clothes, still warm from the sun while sitting in the garden. I loved the foods we were fortunate enough to eat from our own soil. But in reality, I don’t live in the suburbs of New York anymore, with naturally rich soil and an endless supply of water. Instead, I live in a desert, with dry, nutrient-deficient soil and a well that can hardly sustain the normal every day activities of my family and me, never mind if I tried to water a garden. Do I understand that the produce I buy from Safeway may spend 7-14 days in transit before I can even purchase them? Yes. But I also know that they are usually delicious, and I take pride in getting my kids to eat vegetables at all, so I’m happy to get them from Safeway, where I can afford them. FoodRoutes says to, “Pay for taste, not packaging!”, which is a brilliant idea, if taste and packaging were in the same pricing realm. But as it is, the price I pay for packaging is a great deal less than what I would pay for taste at the Farmer’s Market. As one who grew up on a farm with a farming family, I would be the first to want to support our local farmers, and in turn our local economy. As soon as it becomes affordable to my family, I will do that. Would I be comforted to know that we were not ingesting any pesticides by buying only organic foods? Of course! I’ve actually been made fun of before for washing my vegetables with a special soap made just for that purpose. But again, soap is cheaper than the organic foods on the shelves at Safeway. I truly hope that I don’t sound like I’m making excuses, or falling back on the old “money” excuse. But, when two people work their tails off to make ends meet every single day, it is necessary to make your dollar go as far as you possibly can.
I guess I don’t really know what the answer to our nutritional dilemma is. I know that if there was enough money to go around, I would buy locally, and support our local farmers. I would enjoy and appreciate the food I was eating for its freshness, and I would take comfort in knowing exactly where my food came from. Plus, if I became sick from a food-borne illness, I’d know whose butt to go kick. But for now, I have to say that I enjoy the fruits and vegetables that we get from Safeway, that we can afford. I think the key is that people need to concern themselves with what they are eating, if we are to hope to stop the trend of cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, etc. They need to educate themselves as to what kind of eating habits are causing these diseases, and how to eat a healthy diet to avoid them. More fruits, more vegetables, more whole grains, less meat, less carbs… etc. I know that, if nothing else, this focus on food and nutrition has made me more aware of the importance of paying attention to what we choose to put in our mouths. If everyone did this, surely our overall health would improve.

A Day of Food Lab

-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?
To be honest, I thought this was a pretty healthy diet! Granted, I have to admit I was truly behaving myself knowing I was posting this somewhere the whole world could see. :) I actually do eat this kind of diet regularly, though, being a vegetarian. I do think it is healthy, because it consists mostly of vegetables, with some fruit.
-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything? I would switch out the pasta for whole grain pasta.
-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not?
I do find it helpful, and actually, because of all of this nutrition "stuff", I am paying better attention to what my family and I are eating. It is helpful to me because I can actually see the calories I am ingesting. It makes me more conscious of my food choices.

Blood Pressure Lab

Megan Yakovich
Blood Pressure Lab
1. State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
* The wording of this question is confusing to me... "state a problem"? I'm not exactly sure what this is asking me.
To the best of my ability: I think a "problem" about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure is:
- Age: As a person's age increases, their blood pressure will increase.
- Gender: I'm truly not sure. I would think it has less to do with gender than it does with lifestyle choices, heredity, etc. But if I have to guess, I suppose I would guess that males have higher blood pressure than females, in general.
2. Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
I hypothesize that, as a person ages, his or her blood pressure would increase. This is because many people tend to become less active as they age, and exercise is vital to the health of the heart and circulatory system. They also tend to pick up "bad" habits that they did not have when they were young, such as smoking and drinking.
Gender: Again, I truly don't know how gender affects blood pressure. On average, do more men drink than women? I don't know, but if so, it would make sense that their blood pressure would be higher. ??
Which gender, in general, tends to exercise more? I would guess women… but I don’t even know why.  If one were to assume this were true, women would have lower blood pressure than men.
3. How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
I don’t know, because I don’t even know how the experiment works yet! I don’t know what steps to follow or what data to record, because I haven’t seen how it works yet. I would assume that I will track the people’s blood pressures, and then document any details given to me about their lifestyles that would help me understand why they have the high blood pressure.
4. Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
The results of my experiment are that men do have higher blood pressure than women (in general), and blood pressure does seem to increase (in both sexes) as age increases. Interestingly enough, the only time that the group average for men was lower than the women’s average is in the age group of 11-17. In this age group, NO ONE, neither male or female had high blood pressure. However, the average blood pressure for the female group was 119/76, while the male group’s average was 117/75. In this particular group, when I looked at each medical history of every subject, both groups had only 1 person each who had a history of hypertension and lack of exercise. The only difference was that the female group also had one person with a high salt diet.
Every other age group, from 18-54, showed that men had higher blood pressure than women. In the 18-24 age group, only two females showed hypertension. One (24 years) had a family history of hypertension and a high salt diet, but was only 3 pounds overweight. The other female (19 years) had a family history of hypertension and a lack of exercise, but was also 36 pounds overweight. The men in the same age group also showed two people as having hypertension. The first, 18, was 44 lbs overweight, exhibited a lack of exercise, and drank alcohol. The other, 19 years, was only 3 lbs overweight, but had the family history, a high salt diet, and a lack of exercise. The 25-34 age group, I didn’t have a single woman with high blood pressure, which I found very hard to believe. For the same age group, I had 2 men with high blood pressure. Both had a family history of hypertension and were significantly overweight (by 50+ pounds.) Age group 35-44: two females, 3 males. Interestingly, neither of the females were overweight. In fact, the 39 year old drank alcohol, but had no other “predispositions”. The second only exhibited a lack of exercise. As for the men in this age group, two were significantly overweight. The third was only 4 lbs over his optimal weight, but had the hereditary hypertension and a high salt diet. He was also older than the other two men. 45-54: 3 females exhibited hypertension. Two were significantly overweight, and one exhibited 3 of the 4 “components” linked to high blood pressure. In the male group, there were actually 7 in this age group to have hypertension. 4 of the 7 were significantly overweight. I found it very interesting that one subject, a 46 year old man who was actually 5 lbs underweight exhibited high blood pressure when his only factor was drinking alcohol.
5. Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
Yes, my hypothesis was supported. The older you get, the higher your blood pressure, in general. Also, even though I was just guessing in the beginning, it seems that men do in fact have higher blood pressure than women.
6. During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Yes, there were some who were outside the normal range in both sexes. Their medical charts showed that there are 6 factors that are directly linked to high blood pressure: weight, age, family history of hypertension, amount of salt in diet, amount of exercise, and alcohol consumption. It seemed to me that weight and age may have been the factors most contributing to high blood pressure.
7. List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
Please see last question.
8. What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Again, please see above. Yes, obesity is a huge factor in blood pressure. I found that it could cause hypertension by itself. The other factors that can contribute are listed under question 6.

Compendium Review Chapter 8

Food Pyramid

Water-Soluble Vitamins Chart

Fat-Soluble Vitamins Chart

Minerals Chart

Large Intestine 2

Large Intestine 1

Liver

Villi and Microvilli

Small Intestine

Stomach Anatomy

Pharynx and Esophagus

Gastrointestinal Tract

I. Overview of Digestion
II. First Part of Digestive Tract
III. Stomach and Small Intestine
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
V. The Large Intestine and Defacation
VI. Nutrition and Weight Control

I. Overview of Digestion
A. Organs are in gatrointestinal tract.
(Insert gastrointestinal tract picture / www.psych.upenn.edu / http://www.psych.upenn.edu/courses/psych127_Spring2002/notes.html)
B. Purpose of Digestion: To hydrolyze macromolecules (carbs, fats, and proteins) to their unit molecules (mainly sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol) so they can pas through plasma membranes. These nutrients are carried by the blood to our cells. (Mader 144)
C. What do our cells need?
1c. Oxygen for cell respiration to make ATP. ATP is used for cell metabolism.
- "Glucose is the main substrate, or chemical that gets “burned” or combined with oxygen in cellular respiration." (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 4)
- Glucose diffuses through a special protein pore on the cell membrane
- Insulin is a protein secreted by the pancreas into the blood, usually following a meal.
- Insulin stimulates cells to take up glucose and either store it (as glycogen in liver and muscle) or use it in cellular metabolism
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 6)
D. Processes Necessary to the Digestive Process:
1d. Ingestion: Mouth takes in food.
2d. Digestion: Mechanical or chemical.
- Mechanical: Occurs when food is divided into pieces that can be digested by enzymes. (Cutting up our food helps mechanical digestion. Occurs in mouth and stomach.
- Chemical: Digestive enzymes hydrolyze particular foods to molecular nutrients. Begins in mouth and is not complete until food reaches small intestine.
- Chyme: Thick, semifluid mass of partly digested food that goes from stomach to small intestine.
3d. Movement of GI tract contents alone digestive tract.
4d. Absorption: Unit molecules made by digestion go theough the wall of the GI tract and enter the cells that line the tract. From there, nutrients enter blood so they can be brought to cells.
5d. Elimination: Molecules that are not digested are removed from body through anus. (Mader 144-145)
E. Wall of Digestive Tract
1e. Lumen: Central space that contains water (food being digested). (The hose)
2e. Wall of tract has 4 layers:
- First layer, next to lumen: Mucosa (AKA Mucous Membrane): Produces mucus that protects the wall from digestive enzymes inside the lumen.
* Possible disorder: Diverticulosis: Portions of mucosa have pushed through the layers and formed pouches, where food has the ability to collect. Pouches can become infected or inflamed.
- Second layer: Submucosa: Broad band of loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. These vessels carry the nutrients absorbed by mucosa.
* Possible disorder: Inflammatory bowel disease: Because the submucosa contains blood vessels, inflammatory response may occur, leading to inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms: chronic diarrhea, fever, weight loss, and abdominal pain.
- Third layer: Muscularis: Two layers of smooth muscle. These muscles contract to move food from the esophagus to the anus.
* Possible disorder: Irritable bowel syndrome: Contractions of wall cause pain in the abdomen, constipation and / or diarrhea.
- Fourth layer: Serosa: A serous membrane that secretes a serous fluid. Part of the peritoneum, the internal lining of the abdominal cavity.
* Possible disorder: Appendicitis: Inflamed appendix. Peritonitis: Life-threatening infection of peritoneum. (Mader 145)
II. First Part of the Digestive Tract
A. Mouth, pharyns, and esophagus.
1a. Mouth: Receives food and beegins mechanical and chemical digestion.
- Roof of mouth separates the nasal cavities from the oral cavity. Has two parts: Anterior (toward front)hard palate (bone), and Posterior (toward back) soft palate (muscle).
2a. Three pairs of salivary glands: 1st: Lies at side of face just below and in front of ears. These are the ones that swell when someone is sick. 2nd: Beneath the tongue. 3rd: Beneath floor of oral cavity.
3a. Salivary Amylase: Enzyme in saliva that begins process of digesting starch.
B. Teeth and Tongue: Chewing = mechanical digestion.
1b. Teeth have two divisions: crown and root.
* Dental Caries: Tooth decay / cavities. Bacteria within mouth metabolize sugar and produce acids, which erode teeth. Gum disease is linked to cardiovascular disease!
2b. Tongue: Covered by mucous membrane, which contains sensory receptors called taste buds. When a person eats, the food activates nerve impulses to travel through nerves to the brain.
- Tongue is skeletal muscle.
- Bolus: the mass of food that is formed by the tongue for swallowing.
C. Pharynx and Esophagus: Both mouth and nasal passages lead to a cavity called the pharynx.
1c. Trachea is anterior to (in front of) the esophagus, a long tube whose purpose it only to move food to the stomach.
(Insert pharynx and esophagus picture / www.discovercreation.org / http://www.discovercreation.org/newlet/autumn%202004.htm)
2c. Swallowing: voluntary phase. Food enters esophagus, soft palate moves back to close off nasal passages, and the trachea moves up under the epiglottis to cover the glottis (and opening to the larynx, and therefore, air passage).
3c. Peristalsis: Rhythmic contraction that pushes food along esophagus and in all organs of the digestive tract.
4c. Sphincters: Muscles that are around tubes and act as valves; when sphincters contract, tubes close, and open when sphincters relax again. When something is swallowed, the sphincter relaxes to allow food to pass from the esophagus into the stomach before closing again.
* Heartburn: Stomach's contents escape into esophagus. (Mader 146-147)
III. Stomach and Small Intestine: Complete the digestion of food.
A. Stomach: Thick-walled, j-shaped organ that lies on left side of body under the diaphragm (a muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities).
1a. Linked with esophagus above and duodenum of small intestine below.
2a. Stores food, initiates digestion of protein, and controls the movement of chyme into the small intestine.
3a. Has four layers: Muscularis: Has three layers of smooth muscle: circular, longitudinal, and a layer of smooth muscle that runs obliquely to the other two.
- Oblique layer: Allows stomach to stretch and mechanically break down food to mix with gastric juice.
4a. Mucosa of Stomach: deep folds. Rugae: disappears when stomach capacity is full.
5a. Gastric glands: Produce gastric juice, containing enzyme called pepsin, which digests protein, hydrochloric acid, and mucus.
6a. Food leaves stomach when chyme enters the small intestine in squirts. (Mader 148-149)
(Insert stomach anatomy picture /www.rivm.nl / http://www.rivm.nl/interspeciesinfo/intra/human/stomach)
B. Small Intestine: Named for its small diameter, but is very long! Approx. 18 ft in length.
(Insert small intestine picture / instruct.westvalley.edu / http://instruct.westvalley.edu/granieri/biology15coursepage.html)
1b. Digestion is completed in the small intestine.
2b. Contains enzymes to digest all types of foods. Enzymes are secreted by pancreas and enter via a duct at the duodenum, the first 25 cm of small intestine.
3b. Bile: Mechanically breaks down fact by emulsifying it, which causes fat droplets to disperse in water. A duct brings bile from the liver and gallbladder into the duodenum.
4b. Lipase: Present in pancreatic juice. Hydrolicizes fat to glycerol and fatty acids.
5b. Pancreatic amylase begins and an intestinal enzyme finishes the digestion of carbohydrates to glucose.
6b. Pancreatic trypsin begins and an intestinal enzyme finishes the digestion of proteins to amino acids.
C. Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. The products of the digestive process are absorbed in the wall of the small intestine: sugars, amino acids (only additional nutrients that body can’t produce) (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 9)
, fatty acids, and glycerol.
1c. Villi: Fingerlike projections in the mucosa of the small intestine. Microvilli: The cells in the outer layer of the villus are columnar epithelial cells, and each one has thousandss of microscopic extensions. Microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the villus for absorption of nutrients.
(Insert villi and microvilli picture / www.prmgcentral.com / http://www.prmgcentral.com/info/CellularNutrition.htm)
2c. Nutrients are absorbed in the vessels of a villus, which contains blood capillaries and a small lymphatic capillary called a lacteal.
- Sugars (digested from carbohydrates) and animo acids (digested from proteins) enter the blood capillaries of a villus. Glycerol and fatty acids (digested from fats) enter the epithelial cells of the villi, are packaged as lipoprotein droplets (chylomicrons), which enter a lacteal.
3c. After nutrients are absorved, they are carried to all cells of the body by the bloodstream.
D. Lactose Intolerance: Lactose: primary sugar in milk. Those who do not have the enzyme lactase cannot digest lactose, = lactose intolerance.
* Symptoms: diarrhea, gas, bloating, and abdominal cramps.
E. Obesity: Dibetes Type 2 and Cardiovascular Disease: Nutrients absorbed at the small intsetine have a serious effect on body.
1e. Too much saugar and fat can result in obesity, which is associated with both Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
2e. Healthy diet and physcial activity improves the ability of the hormone insulin to function properly in Type 2 diabetes. (Mader 151)
IV. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
A. Pancreas: fish-shaped, spongy, grayish pink orgain that stretches across the back of the abdomen behind the stomach.
1a. Pancreatic juice (produced from pancreatic cells) enters the duodenum by way of the pancreatic duct. This juice has digestive enzymes for all types of food.
- Pancreatic Amylase: digests starch.
- Trypsin: digests protein.
- Lipase: Digests fat.
- Pancreas is also an endocrine gland that secretes hormone (substance made by one set of cells that affects the target cells) insulin into blood.
B. Liver: Largest, most metabolic gland in body. Lies mostly in the upper-right section of the abdominal cavity, under the diphragm. "The liver receives blood via the hepatic portal vein from the capillry bed of GI tract and filters blood in the capillaries of the lobules. Removes poisonous substances from blood and detoxifies them.
- Also stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12.
- As amino acids are changed into glucose, the liver combines their amino groups with CO2 and forms urea.
- Also makes plasma proteins and regulates the amount of cholesterol in the blood. (Mader 152-153)
(Insert liver picture / www.bupa.co.uk / http://www.bupa.co.uk/health_information/html/organ/liver.html )
- Feedback mechanism between liver and pancreas insure constant blood glucose level.
(Frolich PowerPoint Slide 7)
C. Bile is stored in gallbladder, which is located just below the liver.
* Gallstones: Form when liquid stored in gallbladder hardens into pieces of stonelike material.
* Liver Disorders:
- Jaundice: Bile pigments leak into blood.
- Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver.
- Cirrhosis: Liver becomes fatty, and then liver tissue is replaced by inactive fibrous scar tissue. (Often seen in alcoholics.)
D. Regulation of Digestive Secretions: Controlled by nervous system and digestive hormones. (Mader 152-153)
V. The Large Intestine and Defecation
A. Large intestine: cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. Larger in diameter than small intestine, shorter in length.
1a. Cecum: Lies below the junction with the small intestine.
2a. Veriform Appendix: Small projection of cecum.
3a. Colon: Includes the ascending colon, the transvere colon, and the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon (enters the rectum). Rectum opens at anus = defecation.
B. Functions of Large Intestine: Absorbs water, preventing dehydration. Does NOT produce digestive enzymes and does NOT absorb nutrients.
1b. Absorbs vitamins produced by bacteria called the intestinal flora.
2b. Bacteria in large intestine break down indigestible material, and produce B complex vitamins and most of the vitamin K.
3b. Forms feces, and allows for defecation. This helps regulate homeostasis.
C. Disorders of the Colon and Rectum:
* Diarrhea, constipation, diverticulosis, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory disease, and polyps and cancer. (Mader 154-155)
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VI. Nutrition and Weight Control
A. Obesity: Being grossly overweight. Doubled in the US in 20 years. Great concern, because body fat is associated with higher risk for premature death, deabetes type 2, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, repiratory disfunction, osteoarthrities, and certain types of cancers.
- To reverse it, eat fewer calories, be more active, and make wise food choices.
B. Classes of Nutrients: Nutrients: A component of food that performs a physiological funcion of the body. Provide us with energy, promote growth and development, and regulate cellular metabolism.
1b. Carbohydrates: Either simple or complex.
- Glucose: Simple sugar preferred by body as an energy source. Brain cells require glucose.
- Products made from refined grains should be minimized, because during refinement, fiber and vitamins and minerals are removed, leaving mostly starch. Believed to be a major cause of obesity. Also have a high glycemic index, because the blood glucose response the these foods is high.
C. Proteins: Digested to amino acids, needed by cells to synthesize hundreds of cellular proteins.
- Essential Amino Acids: 8 of the 20. Found in eggs, milk products, meat, poultry, and most other foods derived from animals. 2 servings of meat / day is usually plenty.
- Proteins can be harmful if the the diet is severely limited, or if there is an overabundance.
D. Lipids: Fats, oils, and cholesterol.
- Plaque buildup in arteries is known to cause blockages and thus, cardiovascular disease.
E. Minerals: Divided into major minerals and trace minerals.
- Calcium: Major mineral needed to construction of bones and teeth, and for nerve conduction and muscle contraction.
* Osteoporosis: Degenerative bone disease.
- Sodium: Regulates the body's water balance.
(Insert minerals chart Frolich PowerPoint Slide 16)
- Complex carbohydrates: (beans, peas, nuts, fruits, and whole grain products) are recommended as a good source of vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
F. Vitamins: Organic compounds that the body uses for metabolic purposes but is unable to produce in enough quantity.
- many are portions of coenzymes, or enzyme helpers.
- Antioxidants: Vitamins C, E, and A are believed to defend the body against free radicals, and are termed antioxidants.
- Vitamin D: Vtiamin D leaves the skin and is modified first in the kidneys and then in the liver until if finally becomes calcitriol, which promotes the absorption of calcium by the large intestine. (Mader 160-162)
(Insert charts / water and fat-soluble vitamins / Frolich PowerPoint Slides 17-18)
G. Planning Nutritious Meals: A person needs calories for their basal metabolism, and for exercise.
- Limit the amount of calories to what you will use up each day.
- Eat a variety of foods each day.
- Foods from all food groups.
- Eat more vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and low-fat milk products.
- Eat less foods high in saturated fats, added sugars, cholesterol, salt, and alcohol.
- Be physically active everyday.
H. Eating Disorders
1h. Anorexia Nervosa: Severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat that causes one to refuse to eat.
2h. Bulimia Nervosa: A person binge-eats, and then purges to avoid gaining the weight.
3h. Muscle Dysmorphia: A person thinks his body is underdeveloped, There is a preoccupation with diest and body forming. (Mader 164-165)
I. What is healthy? Non-packaged; local; home-cooked; culturally-based; spiritually satisfying. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 24)
1i. How is food raised?
- Most food is no longer farmed, but factory-produced.
- Factory food production looks for maximum short and medium-term profit.
= Factory food production is unconcerned with long-term health of the consumer, or long-term productivity of the land.
- Factory food production is responsive only to government regulations, not to local prestige. Many people in the U.S. no long know where their food comes from, or even how food is grown and raised, or how to do it themselves.
- Small farmers survive by growing local prestige which comes from their concern for long-term health and satisfaction of the consumer and long-term productivity of the land. It is increasingly difficult for them to make a profit. (Frolich PowerPoint Slide 27)
(Insert food pyramid picture / www.tqnyc.org / http://www.tqnyc.org/NYC063564)/nutrition.html